Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Tobacco or Health? pp 149–220Cite as

Other Organ Systems

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 1585 Accesses

Abstract

In many countries, smoking is the foremost health threat to the populace. The current mortality rate in the EU resulting from the direct effects of tobacco smoking is one million deaths a year [1]. Recent data reveal that a disproportionately large number of psychiatric patients are smokers compared with other demographic groups [2–4]. In the US, cigarette consumption is twice as high among these patients (Table 7.1) [5]. A number of research teams have found raised cigarette consumption rates in specific mental patient groups and cohorts with, for instance, bipolar disorder, depression, schizophrenia and panic attacks [6–11]. On the whole, it appears that smoking cessation is more difficult for mentally ill patients than for persons not suffering from such illnesses [3, 12, 13]. Smoking has no beneficial effects on the prognosis for depression and schizophrenic disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   179.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Peto R, Lopez AD, Boreham J, Thun M, Heath C, Doll R (1996) Mortality from smoking worldwide. Br Med Bull 52(1):12–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. de Leon J, Dadvand M, Canuso C, White AO, Stanilla JK, Simpson GM (1995) Schizophrenia and smoking: an epidemiological survey in a state hospital. Am J Psychiatry 152(3):453–455

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Hughes JR, Hatsukami DK, Mitchell JE, Dahlgren LA (1986) Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 143(8):993–997

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Hughes JR (1986) Genetics of smoking: a brief review. Behav Ther 17:335–345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Lasser K, Boyd JW, Woolhandler S, Himmelstein DU, McCormick D, Bor DH (2000) Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. JAMA 284(20):2606–2610

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Glassman AH, Helzer JE, Covey LS, Cottler LB, Stetner F, Tipp JE, et al (1990) Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression. JAMA 264(12):1546–1549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Goff DC, Henderson DC, Amico E (1992) Cigarette smoking in schizophrenia: relationship to psychopathology and medication side effects. Am J Psychiatry 149(9):1189–1194

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Breslau N, Klein DF (1999) Smoking and panic attacks: an epidemiologic investigation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56(12):1141–1147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Breslau N (1995) Psychiatric comorbidity of smoking and nicotine dependence. Behav Genet 25(2):95–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Gonzalez-Pinto A, Gutierrez M, Ezcurra J, Aizpuru F, Mosquera F, Lopez P, et al (1998) Tobacco smoking and bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 59(5):225–228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Kelly C, McCreadie RG (1999) Smoking habits, current symptoms, and premorbid characteristics of schizophrenic patients in Nithsdale, Scotland. Am J Psychiatry 156(11):1751–1757

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Addington J, el Guebaly N, Campbell W, Hodgins DC, Addington D (1998) Smoking cessation treatment for patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 155(7):974–976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Ziedonis DM, George TP (1997) Schizophrenia and nicotine use: report of a pilot smoking cessation program and review of neurobiological and clinical issues. Schizophr Bull 23(2):247–254

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Nordine R (1981) Segmentation study: overview. http://galen.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/angini/html/c/039/otherpages/index.html

  15. Siegel M (1998) Mass media antismoking campaigns: a powerful tool for health promotion. Ann Intern Med 129(2):128–132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Adan A, Prat G, Sanchez-Turet M (2004) Effects of nicotine dependence on diurnal variations of subjective activation and mood. Addiction 99(12):1599–1607

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Cervilla JA, Prince M, Mann A (2000) Smoking, drinking, and incident cognitive impairment: a cohort community based study included in the Gospel Oak project. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 68(5):622–626

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Knott VJ, Harr A, Mahoney C (1999) Smoking history and aging-associated cognitive decline: an event-related brain potential study. Neuropsychobiology 40(2):95–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Le Houezec J, Halliday R, Benowitz NL, Callaway E, Naylor H, Herzig K (1994) A low dose of subcutaneous nicotine improves information processing in non-smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 114(4):628–634

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Pineda JA, Herrera C, Kang C, Sandler A (1998) Effects of cigarette smoking and 12-h abstention on working memory during a serial-probe recognition task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 139(4):311–321

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Witte EA, Davidson MC, Marrocco RT (1997) Effects of altering brain cholinergic activity on covert orienting of attention: comparison of monkey and human performance. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 132(4):324–334

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Stein EA, Pankiewicz J, Harsch HH, Cho JK, Fuller SA, Hoffmann RG, et al (1998) Nicotine-induced limbic cortical activation in the human brain: a functional MRI study. Am J Psychiatry 155(8):1009–1015

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Galanis DJ, Petrovitch H, Launer LJ, Harris TB, Foley DJ, White LR (1997) Smoking history in middle age and subsequent cognitive performance in elderly Japanese-American men. The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol 145(6):507–515

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Ford AB, Mefrouche Z, Friedland RP, Debanne SM (1996) Smoking and cognitive impairment: a population-based study. J Am Geriatr Soc 44(8):905–909

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Fried PA, Watkinson B, Siegel LS (1997) Reading and language in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana. Neurotoxicol Teratol 19(3):171–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Giannakoulas G, Katramados A, Melas N, Diamantopoulos I, Chimonas E (2003) Acute effects of nicotine withdrawal syndrome in pilots during flight. Aviat Space Environ Med 74 (3):247–251

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Rodway P, Dienes Z, Schepman A (2000) The effects of cigarette smoking on negative priming. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 8(1):104–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Wang HX, Fratiglioni L, Frisoni GB, Viitanen M, Winblad B (1999) Smoking and the occurrence of Alzheimer’s disease: cross-sectional and longitudinal data in a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 149(7):640–644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Levin ED, Conners CK, Silva D, Hinton SC, Meck WH, March J, et al (1998) Transdermal nicotine effects on attention. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 140(2):135–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Levin ED, Rezvani AH (2000) Development of nicotinic drug therapy for cognitive disorders. Eur J Pharmacol 393(1–3):141–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Michel C, Hasenfratz M, Nil R, Battig K (1988) Cardiovascular, electrocortical, and behavioral effects of nicotine chewing gum. Klin Wochenschr 66(Suppl 11):72–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Kassel JD, Unrod M (2000) Smoking, anxiety, and attention: support for the role of nicotine in attentionally mediated anxiolysis. J Abnorm Psychol 109(1):161–166

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. West R, Hajek P (1997) What happens to anxiety levels on giving up smoking? Am J Psychiatry 154(11):1589–1592

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Hale CR, Gentry MV, Meliska CJ (1999) Effects of cigarette smoking on lexical decision-making. Psychol Rep 84(1):117–120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Spilich GJ, June L, Renner J (1992) Cigarette smoking and cognitive performance. Br J Addict 87(9):1313–1326

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Hill RD (1989) Residual effects of cigarette smoking on cognitive performance in normal aging. Psychol Aging 4(2):251–254

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Parrott AC, Winder G (1989) Nicotine chewing gum (2 mg, 4 mg) and cigarette smoking: comparative effects upon vigilance and heart rate. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 97(2):257–261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Peeke SC, Peeke HV (1984) Attention, memory, and cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 84(2):205–216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Rose JE, Ananda S, Jarvik ME (1983) Cigarette smoking during anxiety-provoking and monotonous tasks. Addict Behav 8(4):353–359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Mangan GL (1983) The effects of cigarette smoking on verbal learning and retention. J Gen Psychol 108:203–210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Makin J, Fried PA, Watkinson B (1991) A comparison of active and passive smoking during pregnancy: long-term effects. Neurotoxicol Teratol 13(1):5–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Olds DL, Henderson CR Jr, Tatelbaum R (1994) Intellectual impairment in children of women who smoke cigarettes during pregnancy. Pediatrics 93(2):221–227

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Fergusson DM, Lloyd M (1991) Smoking during pregnancy and its effects on child cognitive ability from the ages of 8 to 12 years. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 5(2):189–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fogelman KR, Manor O (1988) Smoking in pregnancy and development into early adulthood. BMJ 297(6658):1233–1236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Naeye RL, Peters EC (1984) Mental development of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 64(5):601–607

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT (1993) Maternal smoking before and after pregnancy: effects on behavioral outcomes in middle childhood. Pediatrics 92(6):815–822

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. McGee R, Stanton WR (1994) Smoking in pregnancy and child development to age 9 years. J Paediatr Child Health 30(3):263–268

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Orlebeke JF, Knol DL, Verhulst FC (1997) Increase in child behavior problems resulting from maternal smoking during pregnancy. Arch Environ Health 52(4):317–321

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne PJ, Kandel DB (1999) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38(7):892–899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Williams GM, O’Callaghan M, Najman JM, Bor W, Andersen MJ, Richards D, et al (1998) Maternal cigarette smoking and child psychiatric morbidity: a longitudinal study. Pediatrics 102(1):e11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Sobol A (1992) Maternal smoking and behavior problems of children. Pediatrics 90(3):342–349

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Kandel DB, Wu P, Davies M (1994) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and smoking by adolescent daughters. Am J Public Health 84(9):1407–1413

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Launer LJ, Andersen K, Dewey ME, Letenneur L, Ott A, Amaducci LA, et al (1999) Rates and risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: results from EURODEM pooled analyses. EURODEM Incidence Research Group and Work Groups. European Studies of Dementia. Neurology 52(1):78–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood LJ (1996) Comorbidity between depressive disorders and nicotine dependence in a cohort of 16-year-olds. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53(11):1043–1047

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Jones J (1998) Further evidence of an association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: findings from a high-risk sample of siblings. J Clin Child Psychol 27(3):352–358

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Drews CD, Murphy CC, Yeargin-Allsopp M, Decoufle P (1996) The relationship between idiopathic mental retardation and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Pediatrics 97(4):547–553

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Anda RF, Croft JB, Felitti VJ, Nordenberg D, Giles WH, Williamson DF, et al (1999) Adverse childhood experiences and smoking during adolescence and adulthood. JAMA 282(17):1652–1658

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Trinidad DR, Unger JB, Chou CP, Azen SP, Johnson CA (2004) Emotional intelligence and smoking risk factors in adolescents: interactions on smoking intentions. J Adolesc Health 34(1):46–55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Miller SK, Slap GB (1989) Adolescent smoking. A review of prevalence and prevention. J Adolesc Health Care 10(2):129–135

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Rasanen P, Hakko H, Isohanni M, Hodgins S, Jarvelin MR, Tiihonen J (1999) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Am J Psychiatry 156(6):857–862

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Ismail K, Sloggett A, De Stavola B (2000) Do common mental disorders increase cigarette smoking? Results from five waves of a population-based panel cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 152(7):651–657

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Cheng LS, Swan GE, Carmelli D (2000) A genetic analysis of smoking behavior in family members of older adult males. Addiction 95(3):427–435

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Addington J (1998) Group treatment for smoking cessation among persons with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 49(7):925–928

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Carmody TP (1989) Affect regulation, nicotine addiction, and smoking cessation. J Psychoactive Drugs 21(3):331–342

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Wu LT, Anthony JC (1999) Tobacco smoking and depressed mood in late childhood and early adolescence. Am J Public Health 89(12):1837–1840

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Pine DS, Klein DF, Kasen S, Brook JS (2000) Association between cigarette smoking and anxiety disorders during adolescence and early adulthood. JAMA 284(18):2348–2351

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Yoshimura K (2000) The psychological characteristics of tobacco dependence in a rural area of Japan. J Epidemiol 10(4):271–279

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Batra A (2000) [Tobacco use and smoking cessation in the psychiatric patient]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 68(2):80–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Koval JJ, Pederson LL, Mills CA, McGrady GA, Carvajal SC (2000) Models of the relationship of stress, depression, and other psychosocial factors to smoking behavior: a comparison of a cohort of students in grades 6 and 8. Prev Med 30(6):463–477

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Patton GC, Carlin JB, Coffey C, Wolfe R, Hibbert M, Bowes G (1998) Depression, anxiety, and smoking initiation: a prospective study over 3 years. Am J Public Health 88(10):1518–1522

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Wang MQ, Fitzhugh EC, Westerfield RC, Eddy JM (1994) Predicting smoking status by symptoms of depression for U.S. adolescents. Psychol Rep 75(2):911–914

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Kendler KS, Neale MC, MacLean CJ, Heath AC, Eaves LJ, Kessler RC (1993) Smoking and major depression. A causal analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50(1):36–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Hu S, Brody CL, Fisher C, Gunzerath L, Nelson ML, Sabol SZ, et al (2000) Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene and neuroticism in cigarette smoking behavior. Mol Psychiatry 5(2):181–188

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Lerman C, Caporaso NE, Audrain J, Main D, Boyd NR, Shields PG (2000) Interacting effects of the serotonin transporter gene and neuroticism in smoking practices and nicotine dependence. Mol Psychiatry 5(2):189–192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Zhong N, Ye L, Ju W, Brown WT, Tsiouris J (1999) Cohen I. 5-HTTLPR variants not associated with autistic spectrum disorders. Neurogenetics 2(2):129–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Breslau N, Kilbey MM, Andreski P (1993) Nicotine dependence and major depression. New evidence from a prospective investigation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50(1):31–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Glassman AH (1993) Cigarette smoking: implications for psychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 150(4):546–553

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Mast EE, Giovino GA, Remington PL (1990) Depression and the dynamics of smoking. A national perspective. JAMA 264(12):1541–1545

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Breslau N, Kilbey M, Andreski P (1991) Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(12):1069–1074

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Romans SE, McNoe BM, Herbison GP, Walton VA, Mullen PE (1993) Cigarette smoking and psychiatric morbidity in women. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 27(3):399–404

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Berlin I, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Said S, Launay JM (1997) Effects of past history of major depression on smoking characteristics, monoamine oxidase-A and -B activities and withdrawal symptoms in dependent smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend 45(1–2):31–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Carton S, Jouvent R, Widlocher D (1994) Nicotine dependence and motives for smoking in depression. J Subst Abuse 6(1):67–76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. D’Mello DA, Flanagan C (1996) Seasons and depression: the influence of cigarette smoking. Addict Behav 21(5):671–674

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Black DW, Zimmerman M, Coryell WH (1999) Cigarette smoking and psychiatric disorder in a community sample. Ann Clin Psychiatry 11(3):129–136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Breslau N, Peterson EL, Schultz LR, Chilcoat HD, Andreski P (1998) Major depression and stages of smoking. A longitudinal investigation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55(2):161–166

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Covey LS, Glassman AH, Stetner F (1998) Cigarette smoking and major depression. J Addict Dis 17(1):35–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Brown RA, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR, Wagner EF (1996) Cigarette smoking, major depression, and other psychiatric disorders among adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35(12):1602–1610

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Rabois D, Haaga DA (1997) Cognitive coping, history of depression, and cigarette smoking. Addict Behav 22(6):789–796

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Keuthen NJ, Niaura RS, Borrelli B, Goldstein M, DePue J, Murphy C, et al (2000) Comorbidity, smoking behavior and treatment outcome. Psychother Psychosom 69(5):244–250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Balfour DJ, Ridleyl DL (2000) The effects of nicotine on neural pathways implicated in depression: a factor in nicotine addiction? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 66(1):79–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Quattrocki E, Baird A, Yurgelun-Todd D (2000) Biological aspects of the link between smoking and depression. Harv Rev Psychiatry 8(3):99–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Pappas N, Logan J, MacGregor R, et al (1998) Neuropharmacological actions of cigarette smoke: brain monoamine oxidase B (MAO B) inhibition. J Addict Dis 17(1):23–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Logan J, Pappas N, King P, MacGregor R, et al (1998) An acute dose of nicotine does not inhibit MAO B in baboon brain in vivo. Life Sci 63(2):L19–L23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Pappas N, Logan J, Shea C, et al (1996) Brain monoamine oxidase A inhibition in cigarette smokers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93(24):14065–14069

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Berlin I, Said S, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Launay JM, Olivares R, Millet V, et al (1995) A reversible monoamine oxidase A inhibitor (moclobemide) facilitates smoking cessation and abstinence in heavy, dependent smokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 58(4):444–452

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Berlin I, Said S, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Olivares R, Launay JM, Puech AJ (1995) Monoamine oxidase A and B activities in heavy smokers. Biol Psychiatry 38(11):756–761

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Angold A (1988) Childhood and adolescent depression. I. Epidemiological and aetiological aspects. Br J Psychiatry 152:601–617

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Conrad KM, Flay BR, Hill D (1992) Why children start smoking cigarettes: predictors of onset. Br J Addict 87(12):1711–1724

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Fleming JE, Offord DR (1990) Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: a critical review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29(4):571–580

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Rutter M, Izard CE, Read PB (1986) Depression in young people. Developmental and clinical perspectives. Guildford, New York

    Google Scholar 

  101. Ebeling H, Moilanen I, Linna SL, Tirkkonen T, Ebeling T, Piha J, et al (1999) Smoking and drinking habits in adolescence – links with psychiatric disturbance at the age of 8 years. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 8(Suppl 4):68–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Taiminen TJ, Salokangas RK, Saarijarvi S, Niemi H, Lehto H, Ahola V, et al (1998) Smoking and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: a pilot study. Addict Behav 23(2):263–266

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Breslau N, Johnson EO (2000) Predicting smoking cessation and major depression in nicotine- dependent smokers. Am J Public Health 90(7):1122–1127

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Curtin L, Brown RA, Sales SD (2000) Determinants of attrition from cessation treatment in smokers with a history of major depressive disorder. Psychol Addict Behav 14(2):134–142

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Herran A, de Santiago A, Sandoya M, Fernandez MJ, Diez-Manrique JF, Vazquez-Barquero JL (2000) Determinants of smoking behaviour in outpatients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 41(2):373–381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Gilbert DG, Crauthers DM, Mooney DK, McClernon FJ, Jensen RA (1999) Effects of monetary contingencies on smoking relapse: influences of trait depression, personality, and habitual nicotine intake. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 7(2):174–181

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Apud JA, Egan MF, Wyatt RJ (2000) Effects of smoking during antipsychotic withdrawal in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 46(2–3):119–127

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. de Leon J (1996) Smoking and vulnerability for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 22(3): 405–409

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Pomerleau CS, Marks JL, Pomerleau OF (2000) Who gets what symptom? Effects of psychiatric cofactors and nicotine dependence on patterns of smoking withdrawal symptomatology. Nicotine Tob Res 2(3):275–280

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Combs DR, Advokat C (2000) Antipsychotic medication and smoking prevalence in acutely hospitalized patients with chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 46(2–3):129–137

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Stassen HH, Bridler R, Hagele S, Hergersberg M, Mehmann B, Schinzel A, et al (1996) Schizophrenia and smoking: evidence for a common neurobiological basis? Am J Med Genet 173–177

    Google Scholar 

  112. Anokhin AP, Vedeniapin AB, Sirevaag EJ, Bauer LO, O’Connor SJ, Kuperman S, et al (2000) The P300 brain potential is reduced in smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 149(4):409–413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Leonard S, Breese C, Adams C, Benhammou K, Gault J, Stevens K, et al (2000) Smoking and schizophrenia: abnormal nicotinic receptor expression. Eur J Pharmacol 393(1–3):237–242

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Olincy A, Leonard S, Young DA, Sullivan B, Freedman R (1999) Decreased bombesin peptide response to cigarette smoking in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 20(1):52–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Yassa R, Lal S, Korpassy A, Ally J (1987) Nicotine exposure and tardive dyskinesia. Biol Psychiatry 22(1):67–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Dolan SL, Sacco KA, Termine A, Seyal AA, Dudas MM, Vessicchio JC, Wexler BE, George TP (2004) Neuropsychological deficits are associated with smoking cessation treatment failure in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 70(2–3):263–275

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Warburton DM, Mancuso G (1998) Evaluation of the information processing and mood effects of a transdermal nicotine patch. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 135(3):305–310

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Sherwood N (1995) Effects of cigarette smoking on performance in a simulated driving task. Neuropsychobiology 32:161–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Mancuso G, Warburton DM, Melen M, Sherwood N, Tirelli E (1999) Selective effects of nicotine on attentional processes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 146:199–204

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Giacobini E (1990) Cholinergic receptors in human brain: effects of aging and Alzheimer disease. J Neurosci Res 27(4):548–560

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Whitehouse PJ, Martino AM, Antuono PG, Lowenstein PR, Coyle JT, Price DL, et al (1986) Nicotinic acetylcholine binding sites in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Res 371(1):146–151

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Nordberg A, Hartvig P, Lilja A, Viitanen M, Amberla K, Lundqvist H, et al (1990) Decreased uptake and binding of 11C-nicotine in brain of Alzheimer patients as visualized by positron emission tomography. J Neural Transm Park Dis Dement Sect 2(3):215–224

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Martin-Ruiz C, Court J, Lee M, Piggott M, Johnson M, Ballard C, et al (2000) Nicotinic receptors in dementia of Alzheimer, Lewy body and vascular types. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 176:34–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Lopez-Arrieta JM, Rodriguez JL, Sanz F (2001) Efficacy and safety of nicotine on Alzheimer’s disease patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2):CD001749

    Google Scholar 

  125. Ott A, Slooter AJ, Hofman A, van Harskamp F, Witteman JC, Van Broeckhoven C, et al (1998) Smoking and risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in a population-based cohort study: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 351(9119):1840–1843

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Kukull WA (2001) The association between smoking and Alzheimer’s disease: effects of study design and bias. Biol Psychiatry 49(3):194–199

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Tyas SL, Pederson LL, Koval JJ (2000) Is smoking associated with the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease? Results from three Canadian data sets. Ann Epidemiol 10(7):409–416

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Debanne SM, Rowland DY, Riedel TM, Cleves MA (2000) Association of Alzheimer’s disease and smoking: the case for sibling controls. J Am Geriatr Soc 48:800–806

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2000) Smoking and dementia in male British doctors: prospective study. BMJ 320(7242):1097–1102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Perry E, Martin-Ruiz C, Lee M, Griffiths M, Johnson M, Piggott M, et al (2000) Nicotinic receptor subtypes in human brain ageing, Alzheimer and Lewy body diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 393(1–3):215–222

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Brayne C (2000) Smoking and the brain. BMJ 320(7242):1087–1088

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Gorelick PB, Sacco RL, Smith DB, Alberts M, Mustone-Alexander L, Rader D, et al (1999) Prevention of a first stroke: a review of guidelines and a multidisciplinary consensus statement from the National Stroke Association. JAMA 281(12):1112–1120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Skoog I (1994) Risk factors for vascular dementia: a review. Dementia 5(3–4):137–144

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Baron JA (1986) Cigarette smoking and Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 36(11):1490–1496

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Hernan MA, Zhang SM, Rueda-deCastro AM, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Ascherio A (2001) Cigarette smoking and the incidence of Parkinson’s disease in two prospective studies. Ann Neurol 50(6):780–786

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Sugita M, Izuno T, Tatemichi M, Otahara Y (2001) Meta-analysis for epidemiologic studies on the relationship between smoking and Parkinson’s disease. J Epidemiol 11(2):87–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Elbaz A, Manubens-Bertran JM, Baldereschi M, Breteler MM, Grigoletto F, Lopez-Pousa S, et al (2000) Parkinson’s disease, smoking, and family history. EUROPARKINSON Study Group. J Neurol 247(10):793–798

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Maggio R, Riva M, Vaglini F, Fornai F, Molteni R, Armogida M, et al (1998) Nicotine prevents experimental parkinsonism in rodents and induces striatal increase of neurotrophic factors. J Neurochem 71(6):2439–2446

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Kelton MC, Kahn HJ, Conrath CL, Newhouse PA (2000) The effects of nicotine on Parkinson’s disease. Brain Cogn 43(1–3):274–282

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Decina P, Caracci G, Sandik R, Berman W, Mukherjee S, Scapicchio P (1990) Cigarette smoking and neuroleptic-induced parkinsonism. Biol Psychiatry 28(6):502–508

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Lie TC, Domino EF (1999) Effects of tobacco smoking on the human pupil. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 37:184–188

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Solberg Y, Rosner M, Belkin M (1998) The association between cigarette smoking and ocular diseases. Surv Ophthalmol 42(6):535–547

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Nicholl ID, Bucala R (1998) Advanced glycation endproducts and cigarette smoking. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy -le-grand) 44(7):1025–1033

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Paetkau ME, Boyd TA, Winship B, Grace M (1977) Cigarette smoking and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 26(1):46–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Walker JM, Cove DH, Beevers DG, Dodson PM, Leatherdale BA, Fletcher RF, et al (1985) Cigarette smoking, blood pressure and the control of blood glucose in the development of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Res 2(4):183–186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Eadington DW, Patrick AW, Collier A, Frier BM (1989) Limited joint mobility, Dupuytren’s contracture and retinopathy in type 1 diabetes: association with cigarette smoking. Diabet Med 6(2):152–157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Klein R, Klein BE, Davis MD (1983) Is cigarette smoking associated with diabetic retinopathy? Am J Epidemiol 118(2):228–238

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Telmer S, Christiansen JS, Andersen AR, Nerup J, Deckert T (1984) Smoking habits and prevalence of clinical diabetic microangiopathy in insulin-dependent diabetics. Acta Med Scand 215(1):63–68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. West S, Munoz B, Schein OD, Vitale S, Maguire M, Taylor HR, et al (1995) Cigarette smoking and risk for progression of nuclear opacities. Arch Ophthalmol 113(11):1377–1380

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Chase HP, Garg SK, Marshall G, Berg CL, Harris S, Jackson WE, et al (1991) Cigarette smoking increases the risk of albuminuria among subjects with type I diabetes. JAMA 265(5):614–617

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE (1996) Cigarette smoking and ten-year progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 103(9):1438–1442

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Muhlhauser I, Bender R, Bott U, Jorgens V, Grusser M, Wagener W, et al (1996) Cigarette smoking and progression of retinopathy and nephropathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 13(6):536–543

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Karamanos B, Porta M, Songini M, Metelko Z, Kerenyi Z, Tamas G, et al (2000) Different risk factors of microangiopathy in patients with type I diabetes mellitus of short versus long duration. The EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study. Diabetologia 43(3):348–355

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Rao CM, Qin C, Robison WG Jr, Zigler JS Jr (1995) Effect of smoke condensate on the physiological integrity and morphology of organ cultured rat lenses. Curr Eye Res 14(4):295–301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Cekic O (1998) Effect of cigarette smoking on copper, lead, and cadmium accumulation in human lens. Br J Ophthalmol 82(2):186–188

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Paik DC, Dillon J (2000) The Nitrite/alpha crystallin reaction: a possible mechanism in lens matrix damage. Exp Eye Res 70(1):73–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. West S, Munoz B, Emmett EA, Taylor HR (1989) Cigarette smoking and risk of nuclear cataracts. Arch Ophthalmol 107(8):1166–1169

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Flaye DE, Sullivan KN, Cullinan TR, Silver JH, Whitelocke RA (1989) Cataracts and cigarette smoking. The City Eye Study. Eye 3(Pt 4):379–384

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Hiller R, Sperduto RD, Podgor MJ, Wilson PW, Ferris FL III, Colton T, et al (1997) Cigarette smoking and the risk of development of lens opacities. The Framingham studies. Arch Ophthalmol 115(9):1113–1118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Klein BE, Klein R, Linton KL, Franke T (1993) Cigarette smoking and lens opacities: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Am J Prev Med 9(1):27–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Christen WG, Manson JE, Seddon JM, Glynn RJ, Buring JE, Rosner B, et al (1992) A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of cataract in men. JAMA 268(8):989–993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Cumming RG, Mitchell P (1997) Alcohol, smoking, and cataracts: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 115(10):1296–1303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Klein BE, Klein RE, Lee KE (1999) Incident cataract after a five-year interval and lifestyle factors: the Beaver Dam eye study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 6(4):247–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Janghorbani MB, Jones RB, Allison SP (2000) Incidence of and risk factors for cataract among diabetes clinic attenders. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 7(1):13–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Seddon JM, Rosner B, Speizer FE, et al (1992) A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of cataract surgery in women. JAMA 268(8):994–998

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Hofbauer LC, Muhlberg T, Konig A, Heufelder G, Schworm HD, Heufelder AE (1997) Soluble interleukin-1 receptor antagonist serum levels in smokers and nonsmokers with Graves’ ophthalmopathy undergoing orbital radiotherapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(7):2244–2247

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Mann K (1999) Risk of smoking in thyroid-associated orbitopathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 107(Suppl 5):S164–S167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Tellez M, Cooper J, Edmonds C (1992) Graves’ ophthalmopathy in relation to cigarette smoking and ethnic origin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 36(3):291–294

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Chen YL, Chang TC, Chen CJ (1994) Influence of smoking on Graves’ disease with or without ophthalmopathy and nontoxic nodular goiter in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc 93(1):40–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Bartalena L, Martino E, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Panicucci M, Velluzzi F, et al (1989) More on smoking habits and Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J Endocrinol Invest 12(10):733–737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Chan D (1998) Cigarette smoking and age-related macular degeneration. Optom Vis Sci 75(7):476–484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Smith W, Assink J, Klein R, Mitchell P, Klaver CC, Klein BE, et al (2001) Risk factors for age-related macular degeneration: pooled findings from three continents. Ophthalmology 108(4):697–704

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group (1992) Risk factors for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 110(12):1701–1708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Klein R, Klein BE, Linton KL, DeMets DL (1993) The Beaver Dam Eye Study: the relation of age-related maculopathy to smoking. Am J Epidemiol 137(2):190–200

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Hammond BR Jr, Wooten BR, Snodderly DM (1996) Cigarette smoking and retinal carotenoids: implications for age-related macular degeneration. Vision Res 36(18):3003–3009

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Vingerling JR, Hofman A, Grobbee DE, de Jong PT (1996) Age-related macular degeneration and smoking. The Rotterdam Study. Arch Ophthalmol 114(10):1193–1196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Seddon JM, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hankinson SE (1996) A prospective study of cigarette smoking and age-related macular degeneration in women. JAMA 276(14):1141–1146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE (1998) Relation of smoking to the incidence of age-related maculopathy. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Am J Epidemiol 147(2):103–110

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Christen WG, Glynn RJ, Manson JE, Ajani UA, Buring JE (1996) A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of age-related macular degeneration in men. JAMA 276(14):1147–1151

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Tamakoshi A, Yuzawa M, Matsui M, Uyama M, Fujiwara NK, Ohno Y (1997) Smoking and neovascular form of age related macular degeneration in late middle aged males: findings from a case-control study in Japan. Research Committee on Chorioretinal Degenerations. Br J Ophthalmol 81(10):901–904

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Tsao K, Aitken PA, Johns DR (1999) Smoking as an aetiological factor in a pedigree with Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy. Br J Ophthalmol 83(5):577–581

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Wilson MR, Hertzmark E, Walker AM, Childs-Shaw K, Epstein DL (1987) A case-control study of risk factors in open angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 105(8):1066–1071

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Rojanapongpun P, Drance SM (1993) The effects of nicotine on the blood flow of the ophthalmic artery and the finger circulation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 231(7):371–374

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Bonovas S, Filioussi K, Tsantes A, Peponis V (2004) Epidemiological association between cigarette smoking and primary open-angle glaucoma: a meta-analysis. Public Health 118(4):256–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Hakim RB, Tielsch JM (1992) Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy. A risk factor for childhood strabismus. Arch Ophthalmol 110(10):1459–1462

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Wojno TH (1999) The association between cigarette smoking and basal cell carcinoma of the eyelids in women. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 15(6):390–392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Egan KM, Gragoudas ES, Seddon JM, Walsh SM (1992) Smoking and the risk of early metastases from uveal melanoma. Ophthalmology 99(4):537–541

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Austin KL, Palmer JR, Seddon JM, Glynn RJ, Rosenberg L, Gragoudas ES, et al (1990) Case-control study of idiopathic retinal detachment. Int J Epidemiol 19(4):1045–1050

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Hesch RD (1982) [Therapeutic considerations in vascular diseases of the inner ear]. HNO 30(10):365–374

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Friedrich G (1985) [Etiology and pathogenesis of sudden deafness]. Laryngol Rhinol Otol (Stuttg) 64(2):62–66

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Barone JA, Peters JM, Garabrant DH, Bernstein L, Krebsbach R (1987) Smoking as a risk factor in noise-induced hearing loss. J Occup Med 29(9):741–745

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Cruickshanks KJ, Klein R, Klein BE, Wiley TL, Nondahl DM, Tweed TS (1998) Cigarette smoking and hearing loss: the epidemiology of hearing loss study. JAMA 279(21):1715–1719

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Cunningham DR, Vise LK, Jones LA (1983) Influence of cigarette smoking on extra-high-frequency auditory thresholds. Ear Hear 4(3):162–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Ragnarsson E, Eliasson ST, Olafsson SH (1992) Tobacco smoking, a factor in tooth loss in Reykjavik, Iceland. Scand J Dent Res 100(6):322–326

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Pindborg J (1949) Tobacco and gingivitis:II. Correlation between consumption of tobacco, ulceromembranous gingivitis and calculus. J Dent Res 28:460–463

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Ahlqwist M, Bengtsson C, Hollender L, Lapidus L, Osterberg T (1989) Smoking habits and-tooth loss in Swedish women. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 17(3):144–147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Holm G (1994) Smoking as an additional risk for tooth loss. J Periodontol 65(11):996–1001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Osterberg T, Mellstrom D (1986) Tobacco smoking: a major risk factor for loss of teeth in three 70-year-old cohorts. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 14(6):367–370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Bartecchi CE, MacKenzie TD, Schrier RW (1994) The human costs of tobacco use (1). N Engl J Med 330(13):907–912

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Grossi SG, Genco RJ, Machtei EE, Ho AW, Koch G, Dunford R, et al (1995) Assessment of risk for periodontal disease. II. Risk indicators for alveolar bone loss. J Periodontol 66(1):23–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Grossi SG, Zambon JJ, Ho AW, Koch G, Dunford RG, Machtei EE, et al (1994) Assessment of risk for periodontal disease. I. Risk indicators for attachment loss. J Periodontol 65(3):260–267

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Locker D, Leake JL (1993) Risk indicators and risk markers for periodontal disease experience in older adults living independently in Ontario, Canada. J Dent Res 72(1):9–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. U.S. Public Health Service NIoDR (1987) Oral health of United States adults: National findings. NIDR, Bethesda, MD. NIH Publication No. 87-2868

    Google Scholar 

  204. Kenney EB, Kraal JH, Saxe SR, Jones J (1977) The effect of cigarette smoke on human oral polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J Periodontal Res 12(4):227–234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Bennet KR, Reade PC (1982) Salivary immunoglobulin A levels in normal subjects, tobacco smokers, and patients with minor aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 53(5):461–465

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Fang MA, Frost PJ, Iida-Klein A, Hahn TJ (1991) Effects of nicotine on cellular function in UMR 106–01 osteoblast-like cells. Bone 12(4):283–286

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Clarke NG, Shephard BC, Hirsch RS (1981) The effects of intra-arterial epinephrine and nicotine on gingival circulation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 52(6):577–582

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. The Research, Science and Therapy Committee of The American Academy of Periodontology (1996) Tobacco use and the periodontal patient. J Periodontol 67(1):51–56

    Google Scholar 

  209. Solomon HA, Priore RL, Bross ID (1968) Cigarette smoking and periodontal disease. J Am Dent Assoc 77(5):1081–1084

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Regazi J, Scuibba J (1993) Oral pathology: clinical-pathologic correlations, 2nd edn. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 162–163

    Google Scholar 

  211. Regazi J, Scuibba J (1993) Oral pathology: clinical-pathologic correlations, 2nd edn. W.B.Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 500–501

    Google Scholar 

  212. McGowan J, Ship J (1996) Fighting the use of smokeless tobacco. J Pract Hygiene 5:29–32

    Google Scholar 

  213. Williams SA, Kwan SY, Parsons S (2000) Parental smoking practices and caries experience in pre-school children. Caries Res 34(2):117–122

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Mecklenburg RE, Greenspan D, Kleinuran DV (1992) Tobacco effects in the mouth: A National Cancer Institute and National Institute of Dental Research Guide for Health Professionals. National Cancer Institute, Washington. NIH Publ No. 92-3330

    Google Scholar 

  215. US Department of Health and Human Services (1982) The health consequences of smoking: cancer. A report of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Assistant Secretary for Health, Office an Smoking and Health. DHHS Publ No (PHS) 82-50179

    Google Scholar 

  216. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, Austin DF, Greenberg RS, Preston-Martin S, et al (1988) Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Res 48(11):3282–3287

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Fletcher C, Peto R, Tinker C (1976) The natural history of chronic bronchitis and emphesema. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  218. Browman GP, Wong G, Hodson I, Sathya J, Russell R, McAlpine L, et al (1993) Influence of cigarette smoking on the efficacy of radiation therapy in head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med 328(3):159–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Department of Health and Human Services (1989) Reducing the health consequences of smoking: 25 years of progress: a report of the Surgeon General: executive summary. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockwille. DHHS Publ No (CDC) 89-8411

    Google Scholar 

  220. US Department of Health and Human Services (1990) The health benefits of smoking cessation: a report of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health and Human Services, Rockwille. DHHS Publ No (CDC) 90-8416

    Google Scholar 

  221. Trigg DJ, Lait M, Wenig BL (2000) Influence of tobacco and alcohol on the stage of laryngeal cancer at diagnosis. Laryngoscope 110(3 Pt 1):408–411

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Sankaranarayanan R, Duffy SW, Nair MK, Padmakumary G, Day NE (1990) Tobacco and alcohol as risk factors in cancer of the larynx in Kerala, India. Int J Cancer 45(5):879–882

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Homann N, Tillonen J, Meurman JH, Rintamaki H, Lindqvist C, Rautio M,, et al (2000) Increased salivary acetaldehyde levels in heavy drinkers and smokers: a microbiological approach to oral cavity cancer. Carcinogenesis 21(4):663–668

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. De Stefani E, Oreggia F, Rivero S, Fierro L (1992) Hand-rolled cigarette smoking and risk of cancer of the mouth, pharynx, and larynx. Cancer 70(3):679–682

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Muscat JE, Wynder EL (1992) Tobacco, alcohol, asbestos, and occupational risk factors for laryngeal cancer. Cancer 69(9):2244–2251

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Richard F, Marecaux N, Dallongeville J, Devienne M, Tiem N, Fruchart JC,, et al (1997) Effect of smoking cessation on lipoprotein A-I and lipoprotein A-I: A-II levels. Metabolism 46(6):711–715

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Steptoe A, Kerry S, Rink E, Hilton S (2001) The impact of behavioral counseling on stage of change in fat intake, physical activity, and cigarette smoking in adults at increased risk of coronary heart disease. Am J Public Health 91(2):265–269

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Craig WY, Palomaki GE, Haddow JE (1989) Cigarette smoking and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations: an analysis of published data. BMJ 298(6676):784–788

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Prieme H, Nyyssonen K, Gronbaek K, Klarlund M, Loft S, Tonnesen P, et al (1998) Randomized controlled smoking cessation study: transient increase in plasma high density lipoprotein but no change in lipoprotein oxidation resistance. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 58(1):11–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Rabkin SW (1984) Effect of cigarette smoking cessation on risk factors for coronary atherosclerosis. A control clinical trial. Atherosclerosis 53(2):173–184

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Stubbe I, Eskilsson J, Nilsson-Ehle P (1982) High-density lipoprotein concentrations increase after stopping smoking. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 284(6328):1511–1513

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Terres W, Becker P, Rosenberg A (1994) Changes in cardiovascular risk profile during the cessation of smoking. Am J Med 97(3):242–249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Hojnacki JL, Mulligan JJ, Cluette JE, Kew RR, Stack DJ, Huber GL (1981) Effect of cigarette smoke and dietary cholesterol on plasma lipoprotein composition. Artery 9(4):285–304

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Tonstad S, Gorbitz C, Sivertsen M, Ose L (1999) Under-reporting of dietary intake by smoking and non-smoking subjects counselled for hypercholesterolaemia. J Intern Med 245(4):337–344

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Assmann G, Schulte H, Schriewer H (1984) The effects of cigarette smoking on serum levels of HDL cholesterol and HDL apolipoprotein A-I. Findings of a prospective epidemiological study on employees of several companies in Westphalia, West Germany. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 22(6):397–402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Hughes K, Choo M, Kuperan P, Ong CN, Aw TC (1998) Cardiovascular risk factors in relation to cigarette smoking: a population-based survey among Asians in Singapore. Atherosclerosis 137(2):253–258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Butowski P, Winder A (1998) The early cardiovascular toll of cigarette smoking in dyslipidaemic patients in the United Kingdom. Eur J Med Res 3(4):189–193

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Cuesta C, Sanchez-Muniz FJ, Garcia-La Cuesta A, Garrido R, Castro A, San Felix B, et al (1989) Effects of age and cigarette smoking on serum concentrations of lipids and apolipoproteins in a male military population. Atherosclerosis 80(1):33–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Glueck CJ, Heiss G, Morrison JA, Khoury P, Moore M (1981) Alcohol intake, cigarette smoking and plasma lipids and lipoproteins in 12–19-year-old children. The Collaborative Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study. Circulation 64(3 Pt 2):III-56

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Jensen EX, Fusch C, Jaeger P, Peheim E, Horber FF (1995) Impact of chronic cigarette smoking on body composition and fuel metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80(7):2181–2185

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Razay G, Heaton KW (1995) Smoking habits and lipoproteins in British women. QJM 88(7):503–508

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Shaten BJ, Kuller LH, Neaton JD (1991) Association between baseline risk factors, cigarette smoking, and CHD mortality after 10.5 years. MRFIT Research Group. Prev Med 20(5):655–659

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Vincelj J, Sucic M, Bergovec M, Sokol I, Mirat J, Romic Z, et al (1997) Serum total, LDL, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides related to age, gender and cigarette smoking in patients with first acute myocardial infarction. Coll Antropol 21(2):517–524

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Whitehead TP, Robinson D, Allaway SL (1996) The effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption on blood lipids: a dose-related study on men. Ann Clin Biochem 33(Pt 2):99–106

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Halfon ST, Green MS, Heiss G (1984) Smoking status and lipid levels in adults of different ethnic origins: the Jerusalem Lipid Research Clinic Program. Int J Epidemiol 13(2):177–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Iscan A, Yigitoglu MR, Ece A, Ari Z, Akyildiz M (1997) The effect of cigarette smoking during pregnancy on cord blood lipid, lipoprotein and apolipoprotein levels. Jpn Heart J 38(4):497–502

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Fuller CJ, May MA, Martin KJ (2000) The effect of vitamin E and vitamin C supplementation on LDL oxidizability and neutrophil respiratory burst in young smokers. J Am Coll Nutr 19(3):361–369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. van Tits LJ, de Waart F, Hak-Lemmers HL, van Heijst P, de Graaf J, Demacker PN, et al (2001) Effects of alpha-tocopherol on superoxide production and plasma intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and antibodies to oxidized LDL in chronic smokers. Free Radic Biol Med 30:1122–1129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Allen SS, Hatsukami D, Gorsline J (1994) Cholesterol changes in smoking cessation using the transdermal nicotine system. Transdermal Nicotine Study Group. Prev Med 23(2):190–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Haustein KO, Krause J, Haustein H (1999) Ergebnisse der Raucherentwöhnungsstudie mit Nicotin auf Parameter der Mikrozirkulation. In: Haustein KO (ed) Rauchen und Nikotin – Eine Kontroverse? 2. Dt. Nikotinkonferenz. Perfusion GmbH, Nürnberg, pp S.38–S.45

    Google Scholar 

  251. Ludviksdottir D, Blondal T, Franzon M, Gudmundsson TV, Sawe U (1999) Effects of nicotine nasal spray on atherogenic and thrombogenic factors during smoking cessation. J Intern Med 246:61–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Lagrue G, Grimaldi B, Martin C, Demaria C, Jacotot B (1989) [Nicotine gum and lipid profile]. Pathol Biol (Paris) 37(8):937–939

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Masarei JR, Puddey IB, Vandongen R, Beilin LJ, Lynch WJ (1991) Effect of smoking cessation-on serum apolipoprotein A-I and A-II concentrations. Pathology 23(2):98–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Quensel M, Soderstrom A, Agardh CD, Nilsson-Ehle P (1989) High density lipoprotein concentrations after cessation of smoking: the importance of alterations in diet. Atherosclerosis 75(2–3):189–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Colditz GA, Bonita R, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rosner B, Speizer FE, et al (1988) Cigarette smoking and risk of stroke in middle-aged women. N Engl J Med 318(15):937–941

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Fowkes FG, Housley E, Riemersma RA, Macintyre CC, Cawood EH, Prescott RJ, et al (1992) Smoking, lipids, glucose intolerance, and blood pressure as risk factors for peripheral atherosclerosis compared with ischemic heart disease in the Edinburgh Artery Study. Am J Epidemiol 135(4):331–340

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Feskens EJ, Kromhout D (1989) Cardiovascular risk factors and the 25-year incidence of diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. The Zutphen Study. Am J Epidemiol 130(6):1101–1108

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Kawakami N, Takatsuka N, Shimizu H, Ishibashi H (1997) Effects of smoking on the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Replication and extension in a Japanese cohort of male employees. Am J Epidemiol 145(2):103–109

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Rimm EB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rosner B, et al (1993) Cigarette-smoking and the risk of diabetes in women. Am J Public Health 83(2):211–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Rimm EB, Chan J, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC (1995) Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men. BMJ 310(6979):555–559

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Uchimoto S, Tsumura K, Hayashi T, Suematsu C, Endo G, Fujii S, et al (1999) Impact of cigarette smoking on the incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle-aged Japanese men: the Osaka Health Survey. Diabet Med 16(11):951–955

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Perry IJ, Wannamethee SG, Walker MK, Thomson AG, Whincup PH, Shaper AG (1995) Prospective study of risk factors for development of non-insulin dependent diabetes in middle aged British men. BMJ 310(6979):560–564

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Fushimi H, Inoue T, Yamada Y, Matsuyama Y, Kameyama M (1992) Profound vasoconstrictive effect of cigarette smoking in diabetics with autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 16(3):191–195

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Gay EC, Cai Y, Gale SM, Baron A, Cruickshanks KJ, Kostraba JN, et al (1992) Smokers with IDDM experience excess morbidity. The Colorado IDDM Registry. Diabetes Care 15(8):947–952

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Georgakopoulos D, Bull C, Thomas O, Robinson J, et al (1993) Cigarette smoking is associated with dose-related and potentially reversible impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation in healthy young adults. Circulation 88(5 Pt 1):2149–2155

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Cominacini L, Fratta PA, Garbin U, Davoli A, De Santis A, Campagnola M, et al (1995) Elevated levels of soluble E-selectin in patients with IDDM and NIDDM: relation to metabolic control. Diabetologia 38(9):1122–1124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Roitman-Johnson B, Stampfer MJ, Allen J (1998) Plasma concentration of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and risks of future myocardial infarction in apparently healthy men. Lancet 351(9096):88–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Zoppini G, Targher G, Cacciatori V, Guerriero A, Muggeo M (1999) Chronic cigarette smoking is associated with increased plasma circulating intercellular adhesion molecule 1 levels in young type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 22(11):1871–1874

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Attvall S, Fowelin J, Lager I, Von Schenck H, Smith U (1993) Smoking induces insulin resistance – a potential link with the insulin resistance syndrome. J Intern Med 233(4):327–332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Frati AC, Iniestra F, Ariza CR (1996) Acute effect of cigarette smoking on glucose tolerance and other cardiovascular risk factors. Diabetes Care 19(2):112–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Epifano L, Di Vincenzo A, Fanelli C, Porcellati F, Perriello G, De Feo P, et al (1992) Effect of cigarette smoking and of a transdermal nicotine delivery system on glucoregulation in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 43(3):257–263

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Eliasson B, Attvall S, Taskinen MR, Smith U (1994) The insulin resistance syndrome in smokers is related to smoking habits. Arterioscler Thromb 14(12):1946–1950

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Facchini FS, Hollenbeck CB, Jeppesen J, Chen YD, Reaven GM (1992) Insulin resistance and cigarette smoking. Lancet 339(8802):1128–1130

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Janzon L, Berntorp K, Hanson M, Lindell SE, Trell E (1983) Glucose tolerance and smoking: a population study of oral and intravenous glucose tolerance tests in middle-aged men. Diabetologia 25(2):86–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Ronnemaa T, Ronnemaa EM, Puukka P, Pyorala K, Laakso M (1996) Smoking is independently associated with high plasma insulin levels in nondiabetic men. Diabetes Care 19(11):1229–1232

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Targher G, Alberiche M, Zenere MB, Bonadonna RC, Muggeo M, Bonora E (1997) Cigarette smoking and insulin resistance in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(11):3619–3624

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Anon (1996) The absence of a glycemic threshold for the development of long-term complications: the perspective of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes 45(10):1289–1298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  278. Biesenbach G, Janko O, Zazgornik J (1994) Similar rate of progression in the predialysis phase in type I and type II diabetes mellitus. Nephrol Dial Transplant 9(8):1097–1102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Chase HP, Garg SK, Marshall G, Berg CL, Harris S, Jackson WE, et al (1991) Cigarette smoking increases the risk of albuminuria among subjects with type I diabetes. JAMA 265(5):614–617

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Christiansen JS (1978) Cigarette smoking and prevalence of microangiopathy in juvenile-onset insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1(3):146–149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Couper JJ, Staples AJ, Cocciolone R, Nairn J, Badcock N, Henning P (1994) Relationship of smoking and albuminuria in children with insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabet Med 11(7): 666–669

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Ekberg G, Grefberg N, Larsson LO, Vaara I (1990) Cigarette smoking and glomerular filtration rate in insulin-treated diabetics without manifest nephropathy. J Intern Med 228(3):211–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Norden G, Nyberg G (1984) Smoking and diabetic nephropathy. Acta Med Scand 215(3):257–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. Stegmayr B, Lithner F (1987) Tobacco and end stage diabetic nephropathy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 295(6598):581–582

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  285. Biesenbach G, Zazgornik J (1996) Influence of smoking on the survival rate of diabetic patients requiring hemodialysis. Diabetes Care 19(6):625–628

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Ishimura E, Shoji T, Emoto M, Motoyama K, Shinohara K, Matsumoto N, et al (2001) Renal insufficiency accelerates atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Kidney Dis 38(4 Suppl 1):S186–S190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Ekberg G, Grefberg N, Larsson LO (1991) Cigarette smoking and urinary albumin excretion in insulin-treated diabetics without manifest nephropathy. J Intern Med 230(5):435–442

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Ikeda Y, Suehiro T, Takamatsu K, Yamashita H, Tamura T, Hashimoto K (1997) Effect of smoking on the prevalence of albuminuria in Japanese men with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 36(1):57–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. Leonard MB, Lawton K, Watson ID, Patrick A, Walker A, MacFarlane I (1995) Cigarette smoking and free radical activity in young adults with insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabet Med 12(1):46–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Biesenbach G, Grafinger P, Janko O, Zazgornik J (1997) Influence of cigarette-smoking on the progression of clinical diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetic patients. Clin Nephrol 48(3):146–150

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Sawicki PT, Didjurgeit U, Muhlhauser I, Bender R, Heinemann L, Berger M (1994) Smoking is associated with progression of diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care 17(2):126–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Ravid M, Brosh D, Ravid-Safran D, Levy Z, Rachmani R (1998) Main risk factors for nephropathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus are plasma cholesterol levels, mean blood pressure, and hyperglycemia. Arch Intern Med 158(9):998–1004

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Holl RW, Grabert M, Heinze E, Debatin KM (1998) Objective assessment of smoking habits by urinary cotinine measurement in adolescents and young adults with type 1 diabetes. Reliability of reported cigarette consumption and relationship to urinary albumin excretion. Diabetes Care 21(5):787–791

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Hansen HP, Rossing K, Jacobsen P, Jensen BR, Parving HH (1996) The acute effect of smoking on systemic haemodynamics, kidney and endothelial functions in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 56(5):393–399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Hargrave DR, McMaster C, O’Hare MM, Carson DJ (1999) Tobacco smoke exposure in children and adolescents with diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 16:31–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Ford ES, Malarcher AM, Herman WH, Aubert RE (1994) Diabetes mellitus and cigarette smoking. Findings from the 1989 National Health Interview Survey. Diabetes Care 17(7):688–692

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Gaillard C, Borel GA, de Peyer R, Loizeau E (1984) [Peptic lesions of the upper digestive tract and drugs. Prospective study]. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 114(2):56–57

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Hanson M, Almer LO, Ekman R, Janzon L, Trell E (1987) Motilin response to a glucose load aberrant in smokers. Scand J Gastroenterol 22(7):809–812

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Boring CC, Squires TS, Tong T (1991) Cancer statistics, 1991. CA Cancer J Clin 41(1):19–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Okumura T, Aruga H, Inohara H, Matsunaga T, Shiozaki H, Kobayashi K, et al (1993) Endoscopic examination of the upper gastrointestinal tract for the presence of second primary cancers in head and neck cancer patients. Acta Otolaryngol 501(Suppl):103–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Zheng Z, Park JY, Guillemette C, Schantz SP, Lazarus P (2001) Tobacco carcinogen-detoxifying enzyme UGT1A7 and its association with orolaryngeal cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 93:1411–1418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Mizobuchi S, Furihata M, Sonobe H, Ohtsuki Y, Ishikawa T, Murakami H, et al (2000) Association between p53 immunostaining and cigarette smoking in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Jpn J Clin Oncol 30(10):423–428

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Newcomb PA, Carbone PP (1992) The health consequences of smoking. Cancer. Med Clin North Am 76(2):305–331

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Brown LM, Silverman DT, Pottern LM, Schoenberg JB, Greenberg RS, Swanson GM, et al (1994) Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction in white men in the United States: alcohol, tobacco, and socioeconomic factors. Cancer Causes Control 5(4):333–340

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Wu AH, Wan P, Bernstein L (2001) A multiethnic population-based study of smoking, alcohol and body size and risk of adenocarcinomas of the stomach and esophagus (United States). Cancer Causes Control 12(8):721–732

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Castellsague X, Munoz N, De Stefani E, Victora CG, Castelletto R, Rolon PA, et al (1999) Independent and joint effects of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on the risk of esophageal cancer in men and women. Int J Cancer 82:657–664

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Johnson N (2001) Tobacco use and oral cancer: a global perspective. J Dent Educ 65(4):328–339

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. Kabat GC, Ng SK, Wynder EL (1993) Tobacco, alcohol intake, and diet in relation to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. Cancer Causes Control 4(2):123–132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Kurata JH, Nogawa AN (1997) Meta-analysis of risk factors for peptic ulcer. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, Helicobacter pylori, and smoking. J Clin Gastroenterol 24(1):2–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Remington PL (1990) Smoking and the risk of peptic ulcer disease among women in the United States. Arch Intern Med 150(7):1437–1441

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Schabowski J (2001) Is there a territorial differentiation in the prevalence of peptic ulcer among rural population in Poland? Ann Agric Environ Med 8(1):57–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Parasher G, Eastwood GL (2000) Smoking and peptic ulcer in the Helicobacter pylori era. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 12(8):843–853

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  313. Bateson MC (1993) Cigarette smoing and Helicobacter pylori infection. Postgrad Med J 69 (807):41–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Lynch DA, Mapstone NP, Lewis F, Pentith J, Axon AT, Dixon MF, et al (1996) Serum and gastric luminal epidermal growth factor in Helicobacter pylori-associated gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. Helicobacter 1(4):219–226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Ma L, Wang WP, Chow JY, Yuen ST, Cho CH (2000) Reduction of EGF is associated with the delay of ulcer healing by cigarette smoking. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 278(1):G10–G17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Ma L, Chow JY, Cho CH (1999) Cigarette smoking delays ulcer healing: role of constitutive nitric oxide synthase in rat stomach. Am J Physiol 276(1 Pt 1):G238–G248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  317. Martin-de-Argila C, Boixeda D, Canton R, Mir N, de Rafael L, Gisbert J, et al (1996) Helicobacter pylori infection in a healthy population in Spain. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 8(12):1165–1168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Talley NJ, Evans JM, Fleming KC, Harmsen WS, Zinsmeister AR, Melton LJ III (1995) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and dyspepsia in the elderly. Dig Dis Sci 40(6):1345–1350

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Chan FK, Sung JJ, Lee YT, Leung WK, Chan LY, Yung MY, et al (1997) Does smoking predispose to peptic ulcer relapse after eradication of Helicobacter pylori? Am J Gastroenterol 92(3):442–445

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  320. Di Mario F, Battaglia G, Leandro G, Dotto P, Dal Bo N, Salandin S, et al (1994) Risk factors of duodenal ulcer bleeding: the role of smoking and nicotine. Ital J Gastroenterol 26(8):385–391

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  321. Ainsworth MA, Hogan DL, Koss MA, Isenberg JI (1993) Cigarette smoking inhibits acid-stimulated duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion. Ann Intern Med 119(9):882–886

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Malesci A, Basilico M, Bersani M, Bonato C, Ballarin E, Ronchi G (1988) Serum pepsinogen I elevation in cigarette smokers. Scand J Gastroenterol 23(5):602–606

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Eto K, Gomita Y, Furuno K, Yao K, Moriyama M, Araki Y (1991) Influences of cigarette smoke inhalation on pharmacokinetics of cimetidine in rats. Drug Metabol Drug Interact 9(2):103–114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Chen SP, Bei L, Wen SH (1993) [Study on omeprazole 20 mg twice weekly in prevention of duodenal ulcer relapse]. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 32(8):538–541

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  325. Borsch G, Schmidt G, Wegener M, Sandmann M, Adamek R, Leverkus F, et al (1988) Campylobacter pylori: prospective analysis of clinical and histological factors associated with-colonization of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Eur J Clin Invest 18(2):133–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  326. Clodi PH (1988) [Nicotine and the gastrointestinal tract]. Wien Med Wochenschr 138(6–7):132–134

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  327. Jedrychowski W, Boeing H, Wahrendorf J, Popiela T, Tobiasz-Adamczyk B, Kulig J (1992) Tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption as risk factors for stomach cancer in different locations and histologic types.. Przegl Epidemiol 46(4):357–367

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Ahsan H, Risch HA, Vaughan TL, Chow WH, et al (1997) Tobacco, alcohol, and socioeconomic status and adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia. J Natl Cancer Inst 89(17):1277–1284

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  329. Ji BT, Chow WH, Yang G, McLaughlin JK, Gao RN, Zheng W, et al (1996) The influence of cigarette smoking, alcohol, and green tea consumption on the risk of carcinoma of the cardia and distal stomach in Shanghai, China. Cancer 77(12):2449–2457

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Lagergren J, Bergstrom R, Lindgren A, Nyren O (2000) The role of tobacco, snuff and alcohol use in the aetiology of cancer of the oesophagus and gastric cardia. Int J Cancer 85(3):340–346

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  331. Ye W, Ekstrom AM, Hansson LE, Bergstrom R, Nyren O (1999) Tobacco, alcohol and the risk of gastric cancer by sub-site and histologic type. Int J Cancer 83(2):223–229

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  332. Vaughan TL, Davis S, Kristal A, Thomas DB (1995) Obesity, alcohol, and tobacco as risk factors for cancers of the esophagus and gastric cardia: adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 4(2):85–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  333. Chen CC, Neugut AI, Rotterdam H (1994) Risk factors for adenocarcinomas and malignant carcinoids of the small intestine: preliminary findings. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 3(3):205–207

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  334. Zaridze D, Borisova E, Maximovitch D, Chkhikvadze V (2000) Alcohol consumption, smoking and risk of gastric cancer: case-control study from Moscow, Russia. Cancer Causes Control 11(4):363–371

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  335. Neugut AI, Jacobson JS, Suh S, Mukherjee R, Arber N (1998) The epidemiology of cancer of the small bowel. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7(3):243–251

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  336. Gordis L, Gold EB (1984) Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer. World J Surg 8(6):808–821

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  337. Li D (2001) Molecular epidemiology of pancreatic cancer. Cancer J 7(4):259–265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  338. Schwartz GG, Reis IM (2000) Is cadmium a cause of human pancreatic cancer? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9(2):139–145

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  339. Talamini G, Bassi C, Falconi M, Sartori N, Salvia R, Rigo L, et al (1999) Alcohol and smoking as risk factors in chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. Dig Dis Sci 44(7):1303–1311

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  340. Band PR, Spinelli JJ, Threlfall WJ, Fang R, Le ND, Gallagher RP (1999) Identification of occupational cancer risks in British Columbia. Part I: Methodology, descriptive results, and analysis of cancer risks, by cigarette smoking categories of 15,463 incident cancer cases. J Occup Environ Med 41(4):224–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  341. Bray I, Brennan P, Boffetta P (2000) Projections of alcohol- and tobacco-related cancer mortality in Central Europe. Int J Cancer 87(1):122–128

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  342. Chiu BC, Lynch CF, Cerhan JR, Cantor KP (2001) Cigarette smoking and risk of bladder, pancreas, kidney, and colorectal cancers in Iowa. Ann Epidemiol 11(1):28–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  343. Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Hunter DJ, Rimm EB, et al (1996) A prospective study of cigarette smoking and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Arch Intern Med 156(19):2255–2260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  344. Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH (1997) Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6(12):1081–1086

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  345. Shapiro JA, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ (2000) Cigar smoking in men and risk of death from tobacco-related cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 92(4):333–337

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  346. Bleyer AJ, Shemanski LR, Burke GL, Hansen KJ, Appel RG (2000) Tobacco, hypertension, and vascular disease: risk factors for renal functional decline in an older population. Kidney Int 57(5):2072–2079

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  347. Hesse E (1907) Der Einfluß des Rauchens auf den Kreislauf. Dtsch Arch Klin Med 89:565–575

    Google Scholar 

  348. Black HR, Zeevi GR, Silten RM, Walker Smith GJ (1983) Effect of heavy cigarette smoking on renal and myocardial arterioles. Nephron 34(3):173–179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  349. Stengel B, Watier L, Chouquet C, Cenee S, Philippon C, Hemon D (1999) Influence of renal biomarker variability on the design and interpretation of occupational or environmental studies. Toxicol Lett 106(1):69–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  350. Hansen HP, Rossing K, Jacobsen P, Jensen BR, Parving HH (1996) The acute effect of smoking on systemic haemodynamics, kidney and endothelial functions in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 56(5):393–399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  351. Halimi JM, Philippon C, Mimran A (1998) Contrasting renal effects of nicotine in smokers and non-smokers. Nephrol Dial Transplant 13(4):940–944

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  352. Ritz E, Benck U, Franek E, Keller C, Seyfarth M, Clorius J (1998) Effects of smoking on renal hemodynamics in healthy volunteers and in patients with glomerular disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 9(10):1798–1804

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  353. Bump RC, McClish DM (1994) Cigarette smoking and pure genuine stress incontinence of urine: a comparison of risk factors and determinants between smokers and nonsmokers. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170(2):579–582

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  354. Cascorbi I, Roots I, Brockmoller J (2001) Association of NAT1 and NAT2 polymorphisms to urinary bladder cancer: significantly reduced risk in subjects with NAT1*10. Cancer Res 61(13):5051–5056

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  355. Koskimaki J, Hakama M, Huhtala H, Tammela TL (1998) Association of smoking with lower urinary tract symptoms. J Urol 159(5):1580–1582

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  356. Nordlund LA, Carstensen JM, Pershagen G (1997) Cancer incidence in female smokers: a 26-year follow-up. Int J Cancer 73(5):625–628

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  357. Fels LM (1999) Risk assessment of nephrotoxicity of cadmium. Ren Fail 21(3–4):275–281

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  358. Benedetti JL, Samuel O, Dewailly E, Gingras S, Lefebvre MA (1999) Levels of cadmium in kidney and liver tissues among a Canadian population (province of Quebec). J Toxicol Environ Health A 56(3):145–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  359. Ellis KJ, Vartsky D, Zanzi I, Cohn SH, Yasumura S (1979) Cadmium: in vivo measurement in smokers and nonsmokers. Science 205(4403):323–325

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  360. Ala-Opas M, Tahvonen R (1995) Concentrations of cadmium and lead in renal cell cancer. J Trace Elem Med Biol 9(3):176–180

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  361. Friis L, Edling C (1998) [Reduced level of cadmium in the renal cortex. Due to less smoking or environmental improvement?]. Lakartidningen 95(37):3949–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  362. Friis L, Petersson L, Edling C (1998) Reduced cadmium levels in human kidney cortex in sweden. Environ Health Perspect 106(4):175–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  363. Ikeda M, Zhang ZW, Moon CS, Shimbo S, Watanabe T, Nakatsuka H, et al (2000) Possible effects of environmental cadmium exposure on kidney function in the Japanese general population. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 73(1):15–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  364. Stoner GD, Daniel FB, Schenck KM, Schut HA, Goldblatt PJ, Sandwisch DW (1982) Metabolism and DNA binding of benzoa.pyrene in cultured human bladder and bronchus. Carcinogenesis 3(2):195–201

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  365. Talaska G, al Juburi AZ, Kadlubar FF (1991) Smoking related carcinogen-DNA adducts in biopsy samples of human urinary bladder: identification of N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-4-aminobiphenyl as a major adduct. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88(12):5350–5354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  366. Talaska G, Schamer M, Skipper P, Tannenbaum S, Caporaso N, Unruh L, et al (1991) Detection of carcinogen-DNA adducts in exfoliated urothelial cells of cigarette smokers: association with smoking, hemoglobin adducts, and urinary mutagenicity. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1(1):61–66

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  367. Lodovici M, Dolara P, Caderni G, Carini M, Costantini A, Selli C, et al (1983) The effect of cigarette smoke on aryl-hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) activity of the human kidney. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 19(11):1565–1568

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  368. Atawodi SE, Richter E (1996) Bacterial reduction of N-oxides of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNA). Hum Exp Toxicol 15(4):329–334

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  369. Mothersill C, O’Malley K, Colucci S, Murphy D, Lynch T, Payne S, et al (1997) p53 protein expression and increased SSCP mobility shifts in the p53 gene in normal urothelium cultured from smokers. Carcinogenesis 18(6):1241–1245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  370. Walker C (1998) Molecular genetics of renal carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 26(1):113–120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  371. Wilkens LR, Kadir MM, Kolonel LN, Nomura AM, Hankin JH (1996) Risk factors for lower urinary tract cancer: the role of total fluid consumption, nitrites and nitrosamines, and selected foods. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5(3):161–166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  372. Xu X, Stower MJ, Reid IN, Garner RC, Burns PA (1997) A hot spot for p53 mutation in transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: clues to the etiology of bladder cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6(8):611–616

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  373. Bringuier PP, McCredie M, Sauter G, Bilous M, Stewart J, Mihatsch MJ, et al (1998) Carcinomas of the renal pelvis associated with smoking and phenacetin abuse: p53 mutations and polymorphism of carcinogen-metabolising enzymes. Int J Cancer 79(5):531–536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  374. Bartsch H, Nair U, Risch A, Rojas M, Wikman H, Alexandrov K (2000) Genetic polymorphism of CYP genes, alone or in combination, as a risk modifier of tobacco-related cancers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9(1):3–28

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  375. Vineis P, Bartsch H, Caporaso N, Harrington AM, Kadlubar FF, Landi MT, et al (1994) Genetically based N-acetyltransferase metabolic polymorphism and low-level environmental exposure to carcinogens. Nature 369(6476):154–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  376. Badawi AF, Hirvonen A, Bell DA, Lang NP, Kadlubar FF (1995) Role of aromatic amine acetyltransferases, NAT1 and NAT2, in carcinogen-DNA adduct formation in the human urinary bladder. Cancer Res 55(22):5230–5237

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  377. Seree EM, Villard PH, Re JL, De Meo M, Lacarelle B, Attolini L, et al (1996) High inducibility of mouse renal CYP2E1 gene by tobacco smoke and its possible effect on DNA single strand breaks. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 219(2):429–434

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  378. Melikian AA, Wang X, Waggoner S, Hoffmann D, El Bayoumy K (1999) Comparative response of normal and of human papillomavirus-16 immortalized human epithelial cervical cells to benzoa.pyrene. Oncol Rep 6:1371–1376

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  379. Lehucher-Michel MP, Di Giorgio C, Amara YA, Laget M, Botta A (1995) The micronucleus assay in human exfoliated urothelial cells: effect of smoking. Mutagenesis 10(4):329–332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  380. Helmert U, Bronder E, Klimpel A, Molzahn M, Pommer W (2000) Risk factors for urothelial carcinoma: drinking measures, smoking and other life style-related risk factors – results of the Berlin Urothelial Study (BUS). Rsikofaktoren fur das Urothelkarzinom: Trinkmenge, Rauchen und andere lebensstilbezogene Risikofaktoren – Ergebnisse der Berliner Urothelstudie (BUS). Gesundheitswesen 62(5):270–274

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  381. Lwaleed BA, Bass PS, Francis JL (1999) Urinary tissue factor: a potential marker of disease. J Pathol 188(1):3–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  382. Hultberg B, Isaksson A, Brattstrom L, Israelsson B (1992) Elevated urinary excretion of beta-hexosaminidase in smokers. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 30(3):131–133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  383. Bray I, Brennan P, Boffetta P (2000) Projections of alcohol- and tobacco-related cancer mortality in Central Europe. Int J Cancer 87(1):122–128

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  384. Tavani A, Pregnolato A, Violante A, La Vecchia C, Negri E (1997) Attributable risks for kidney cancer in northern Italy. Eur J Cancer Prev 6(2):195–199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  385. McCredie M, Stewart JH (1992) Risk factors for kidney cancer in New South Wales, Australia. II. Urologic disease, hypertension, obesity, and hormonal factors. Cancer Causes Control 3(4):323–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  386. Chiu BC, Lynch CF, Cerhan JR, Cantor KP (2001) Cigarette smoking and risk of bladder, pancreas, kidney, and colorectal cancers in Iowa. Ann Epidemiol 11(1):28–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  387. Moiche Bokobo P, Atxa de la Presa MA, Cuesta AJ (2001) [Transitional cell carcinoma in a young heavy marihuana smoker]. Carcinoma de celulas transicionales en un joven fumador severo de marihuana. Arch Esp Urol 54(2):165–167

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  388. Zhang ZF, Shu XM, Cordon-Cardo C, Orlow I, Lu ML, Millon TV, et al (1997) Cigarette smoking and chromosome 9 alterations in bladder cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6(5):321–326

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  389. D’Avanzo B, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Decarli A, Benichou J (1995) Attributable risks for bladder cancer in northern Italy. Ann Epidemiol 5(6):427–431

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  390. Chyou PH, Nomura AM, Stemmermann GN (1993) A prospective study of diet, smoking, and lower urinary tract cancer. Ann Epidemiol 3(3):211–216

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  391. Nomura A, Kolonel LN, Yoshizawa CN (1989) Smoking, alcohol, occupation, and hair dye use in cancer of the lower urinary tract. Am J Epidemiol 130(6):1159–1163

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  392. Sturgeon SR, Hartge P, Silverman DT, Kantor AF, Linehan WM, Lynch C, et al (1994) Associations between bladder cancer risk factors and tumor stage and grade at diagnosis. Epidemiology 5(2):218–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  393. Brinton LA, Fraumeni JF Jr (1986) Epidemiology of uterine cervical cancer. J Chronic Dis 39(12):1051–1065

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  394. US Department of Health and Human Services. (1989) Reducing the health consequences of smoking: 25 years of progress: a report of the Surgeon General. Public Health Service, Certers of Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Washington. DHHS Publ No (CDC) 89-8411

    Google Scholar 

  395. Vineis P, Frea B, Uberti E, Ghisetti V, Terracini B (1983) Bladder cancer and cigarette smoking in males: a case-control study. Tumori 69(1):17–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  396. Vineis P, Segnan N, Costa G, Terracini B (1981) Evidence of a multiplicative effect between cigarette smoking and occupational exposures in the aetiology of bladder cancer. Cancer Lett 14(3):285–290

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  397. Morrison AS, Buring JE, Verhoek WG, Aoki K, Leck I, Ohno Y, et al (1984) An international study of smoking and bladder cancer. J Urol 131(4):650–654

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  398. Thompson IM, Peek M, Rodriguez FR (1987) The impact of cigarette smoking on stage, grade and number of recurrences of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. J Urol 137(3):401–403

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  399. Fleshner N, Garland J, Moadel A, Herr H, Ostroff J, Trambert R, et al (1999) Influence of smoking status on the disease-related outcomes of patients with tobacco-associated superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Cancer 86(11):2337–2345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  400. Pitard A, Brennan P, Clavel J, Greiser E, Lopez-Abente G, Chang-Claude J, et al (2001) Cigar, pipe, and cigarette smoking and bladder cancer risk in European men. Cancer Causes Control 12(6):551–556

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  401. Fortuny J, Kogevinas M, Chang-Claude J, Gonzalez CA, Hours M, Jockel KH, et al (1999) Tobacco, occupation and non-transitional-cell carcinoma of the bladder: an international case-control study. Int J Cancer 80:44–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  402. Coker AL, Rosenberg AJ, McCann MF, Hulka BS (1992) Active and passive cigarette smoke exposure and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1(5):349–356

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  403. Daly SF, Doyle M, English J, Turner M, Clinch J, Prendiville W (1998) Can the number of cigarettes smoked predict high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia among women-with mildly abnormal cervical smears? Am J Obstet Gynecol 179(2):399–402

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  404. Gram IT, Austin H, Stalsberg H (1992) Cigarette smoking and the incidence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, grade III, and cancer of the cervix uteri. Am J Epidemiol 135(4):341–346

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  405. Kanetsky PA, Gammon MD, Mandelblatt J, Zhang ZF, Ramsey E, Wright TC Jr, et al (1998) Cigarette smoking and cervical dysplasia among non-Hispanic black women. Cancer Detect Prev 22(2):109–119

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  406. Licciardone JC, Wilkins JR III, Brownson RC, Chang JC (1989) Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in the aetiology of uterine cervical cancer. Int J Epidemiol 18(3):533–537

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  407. Roteli-Martins CM, Panetta K, Alves VA, Siqueira SA, Syrjanen KJ, Derchain SF (1998) Cigarette smoking and high-risk HPV DNA as predisposing factors for high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) in young Brazilian women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 77(6):678–682

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  408. Warwick AP, Redman CW, Jones PW, Fryer AA, Gilford J, Alldersea J, et al (1994) Progression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia to cervical cancer: interactions of cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 EM and glutathione S-transferase GSTM1 null genotypes and cigarette smoking. Br J Cancer 70(4):704–708

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  409. Warwick A, Sarhanis P, Redman C, Pemble S, Taylor JB, Ketterer B, et al (1994) Theta class glutathione S-transferase GSTT1 genotypes and susceptibility to cervical neoplasia: interactions with GSTM1, CYP2D6 and smoking. Carcinogenesis 15(12):2841–2845

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  410. Lyon JL, Gardner JW, West DW, Stanish WM, Hebertson RM (1983) Smoking and carcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix. Am J Public Health 73(5):558–562

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  411. Trevathan E, Layde P, Webster LA, Adams JB, Benigno BB, Ory H (1983) Cigarette smoking and dysplasia and carcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix. JAMA 250(4):499–502

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  412. Slattery ML, Robison LM, Schuman KL, French TK, Abbott TM, Overall JC Jr, et al (1989) Cigarette smoking and exposure to passive smoke are risk factors for cervical cancer. JAMA 261(11):1593–1598

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  413. Sasson IM, Haley NJ, Hoffmann D, Wynder EL, Hellberg D, Nilsson S (1985) Cigarette smoking and neoplasia of the uterine cervix: smoke constituents in cervical mucus. N Engl J Med 312(5):315–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  414. Brinton LA, Schairer C, Haenszel W, Stolley P, Lehman HF, Levine R, et al (1986) Cigarette smoking and invasive cervical cancer. JAMA 255(23):3265–3269

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  415. McCann MF, Irwin DE, Walton LA, Hulka BS, Morton JL, Axelrad CM (1992) Nicotine and cotinine in the cervical mucus of smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1(2):125–129

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  416. Prokopczyk B, Cox JE, Hoffmann D, Waggoner SE (1997) Identification of tobacco-specific carcinogen in the cervical mucus of smokers and nonsmokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 89(12):868–873

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  417. Szarewski A, Jarvis MJ, Sasieni P, Anderson M, Edwards R, Steele SJ, et al (1996) Effect of smoking cessation on cervical lesion size. Lancet 347(9006):941–943

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  418. Haidinger G, Temml C, Schatzl G, Brossner C, Roehlich M, Schmidbauer CP, et al (2000) Risk factors for lower urinary tract symptoms in elderly men. For the Prostate Study Group of the Austrian Society of Urology. Eur Urol 37(4):413–420

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  419. Platz EA, Rimm EB, Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al (1999) Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am J Epidemiol 149(2):106–115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  420. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Schuman LM, Bjelke E, Gridley G, Wacholder S, et al (1990) Diet, tobacco use, and fatal prostate cancer: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Res 50(21):6836–6840

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  421. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr (1991) Tobacco use and prostate cancer: 26-year follow-up of US veterans. Am J Epidemiol 133(5):437–441

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  422. Mantel N (1992) Re: tobacco use and prostate cancer: 26-year follow-up of US veterans. Am J Epidemiol 135(3):327–328

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  423. Coughlin SS, Neaton JD, Sengupta A (1996) Cigarette smoking as a predictor of death from prostate cancer in 348,874 men screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Am J Epidemiol 143(10):1002–1006

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  424. Sharpe CR, Siemiatycki J (2001) Joint effects of smoking and body mass index on prostate cancer risk. Epidemiology 12(5):546–551

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  425. Stattin P, Soderberg S, Hallmans G, Bylund A, Kaaks R, Stenman UH, et al (2001) Leptin is associated with increased prostate cancer risk: a nested case-referent study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86(3):1341–1345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  426. Lotufo PA, Lee IM, Ajani UA, Hennekens CH, Manson JE (2000) Cigarette smoking and risk of prostate cancer in the physicians’ health study (United States). Int J Cancer 87:141–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  427. Vine MF (1996) Smoking and male reproduction: a review. Int J Androl 19(6):323–337

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  428. Vine MF, Tse CK, Hu P, Truong KY (1996) Cigarette smoking and semen quality. Fertil Steril 65(4):835–842

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  429. Dunphy BC, Barratt CL, von Tongelen BP, Cooke ID (1991) Male cigarette smoking and fecundity in couples attending an infertility clinic. Andrologia 23(3):223–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  430. Rubes J, Lowe X, Moore D, Perreault S, Slott V, Evenson D, et al (1998) Smoking cigarettes is associated with increased sperm disomy in teenage men. Fertil Steril 70(4):715–723

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  431. Joesoef MR, Beral V, Aral SO, Rolfs RT, Cramer DW (1993) Fertility and use of cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine. Ann Epidemiol 3(6):592–594

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  432. Sterzik K, Strehler E, De Santo M, Trumpp N, Abt M, Rosenbusch B, et al (1996) Influence of smoking on fertility in women attending an in vitro fertilization program. Fertil Steril 65 (4):810–814

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  433. Wong WY, Thomas CM, Merkus HM, Zielhuis GA, Doesburg WH, Steegers-Theunissen RP (2000) Cigarette smoking and the risk of male factor subfertility: minor association between cotinine in seminal plasma and semen morphology. Fertil Steril 74(5):930–935

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  434. Van Voorhis BJ, Dawson JD, Stovall DW, Sparks AE, Syrop CH (1996) The effects of smoking on ovarian function and fertility during assisted reproduction cycles. Obstet Gynecol 88 (5):785–791

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  435. Shiverick KT, Salafia C (1999) Cigarette smoking and pregnancy I: ovarian, uterine and placental effects. Placenta 20(4):265–272

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  436. Olsen J (1991) Cigarette smoking, tea and coffee drinking, and subfecundity. Am J Epidemiol 133(7):734–739

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  437. Florack EI, Zielhuis GA, Rolland R (1994) Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine intake and fecundability. Prev Med 23(2):175–180

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  438. Gudmundsson JA, Ljunghall S, Bergquist C, Wide L, Nillius SJ (1987) Increased bone turnover during gonadotropin-releasing hormone superagonist-induced ovulation inhibition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 65(1):159–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  439. Landin-Wilhelmsen K, Wilhelmsen L, Lappas G, Rosen T, Lindstedt G, Lundberg PA, et al (1995) Serum intact parathyroid hormone in a random population sample of men and women: relationship to anthropometry, life-style factors, blood pressure, and vitamin D. Calcif Tissue Int 56(2):104–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  440. Mellstrom D, Johansson C, Johnell O, Lindstedt G, Lundberg PA, Obrant K, et al (1993) Osteoporosis, metabolic aberrations, and increased risk for vertebral fractures after partial gastrectomy. Calcif Tissue Int 53(6):370–377

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  441. Ortego-Centeno N, Munoz-Torres M, Hernandez-Quero J, Jurado-Duce A, de la Higuera Torres-Puchol (1994) Bone mineral density, sex steroids, and mineral metabolism in premenopausal smokers. Calcif Tissue Int 55(6):403–407

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  442. Ortego-Centeno N, Munoz-Torres M, Jodar E, Hernandez-Quero J, Jurado-Duce A, de la Higuera Torres-Puchol (1997) Effect of tobacco consumption on bone mineral density in healthy young males. Calcif Tissue Int 60(6):496–500

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  443. Scragg R, Khaw KT, Murphy S (1995) Life-style factors associated with winter serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in elderly adults. Age Ageing 24(4):271–275

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  444. Fisher CL, Mannino DM, Herman WH, Frumkin H (1997) Cigarette smoking and thyroid hormone levels in males. Int J Epidemiol 26(5):972–977

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  445. Kirschbaum C, Scherer G, Strasburger CJ (1994) Pituitary and adrenal hormone responses to pharmacological, physical, and psychological stimulation in habitual smokers and nonsmokers. Clin Investig 72(10):804–810

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  446. Salvini S, Stampfer MJ, Barbieri RL, Hennekens CH (1992) Effects of age, smoking and vitamins on plasma DHEAS levels: a cross-sectional study in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 74(1):139–143

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  447. Syversen U, Nordsletten L, Falch JA, Madsen JE, Nilsen OG, Waldum HL (1999) Effect of lifelong nicotine inhalation on bone mass and mechanical properties in female rat femurs. Calcif Tissue Int 65(3):246–249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  448. Iwaniec UT, Fung YK, Akhter MP, Haven MC, Nespor S, Haynatzki GR, et al (2001) Effects of nicotine on bone mass, turnover, and strength in adult female rats. Calcif Tissue Int 68(6):358–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  449. Chiba M, Masironi R (1992) Toxic and trace elements in tobacco and tobacco smoke. Bull World Health Organ 70(2):269–275

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  450. Orrenius S, McConkey DJ, Bellomo G, Nicotera P (1989) Role of Ca2+ in toxic cell killing. Trends Pharmacol Sci 10(7):281–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  451. Smith CJ, Livingston SD, Doolittle DJ (1997) An international literature survey of “IARC Group I carcinogens” reported in mainstream cigarette smoke. Food Chem Toxicol 35(10–11):1107–1130

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  452. Hermann AP, Brot C, Gram J, Kolthoff N, Mosekilde L (2000) Premenopausal smoking and bone density in 2015 perimenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 15(4):780–787

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  453. Brot C, Jorgensen NR, Sorensen OH (1999) The influence of smoking on vitamin D status and calcium metabolism. Eur J Clin Nutr 53(12):920–926

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  454. Spangler JG (1999) Smoking and hormone-related disorders. Prim Care 26(3):499–511

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  455. Kiel DP, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, Anderson JJ, Baron JA, Felson DT (1996) The effect of smoking at different life stages on bone mineral density in elderly men and women. Osteoporos Int 6(3):240–248

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  456. van Hoof HJ, van der Mooren MJ, Swinkels LM, Rolland R, Benraad TJ (1994) Hormone replacement therapy increases serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D: a 2-year prospective study. Calcif Tissue Int 55(6):417–419

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  457. Michnovicz JJ, Hershcopf RJ, Naganuma H, Bradlow HL, Fishman J (1986) Increased 2-hydroxylation of estradiol as a possible mechanism for the anti-estrogenic effect of cigarette smoking. N Engl J Med 315(21):1305–1309

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  458. Geisler J, Omsjo IH, Helle SI, Ekse D, Silsand T, Lonning PE (1999) Plasma oestrogen fractions in postmenopausal women receiving hormone replacement therapy: influence of route of administration and cigarette smoking. J Endocrinol 162:265–270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  459. Ewers U, Brockhaus A, Dolgner R, Freier I, Turfeld M, Engelke R, et al (1990) [Blood lead and blood cadmium concentrations in 55–66-year-old women fron different areas of Nordrhein-Westfalen – chronological trends during 1982–1988]. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed 189(5):405–418

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  460. Kido T, Nogawa K, Yamada Y, Honda R, Tsuritani I, Ishizaki M, et al (1989) Osteopenia in inhabitants with renal dysfunction induced by exposure to environmental cadmium. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 61(4):271–276

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  461. Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B (1991) Smoking and bone loss among postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 6(4):331–338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  462. Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B (1999) Smoking increases bone loss and decreases intestinal calcium absorption. J Bone Miner Res 14(2):215–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  463. Fang MA, Frost PJ, Iida-Klein A, Hahn TJ (1991) Effects of nicotine on cellular function in UMR 106–01 osteoblast-like cells. Bone 12(4):283–286

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  464. Khaw KT, Sneyd MJ, Compston J (1992) Bone density parathyroid hormone and 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in middle aged women. BMJ 305(6848):273–277

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  465. Martinez ME, del Campo MT, Sanchez-Cabezudo MJ, Garcia JA, Sanchez Calvin MT, Torrijos A, et al (1994) Relations between calcidiol serum levels and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with low bone density. Calcif Tissue Int 55(4):253–256

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  466. Cooper C, Wickham C (1990) Cigarette smoking and the risk of age-related fractures. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 93–100

    Google Scholar 

  467. Law M (1990) Smoking and osteoporosis. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 83–92

    Google Scholar 

  468. Jensen GF (1986) Osteoporosis of the slender smoker revisited by epidemiologic approach. Eur J Clin Invest 16(3):239–242

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  469. Johnell O, Nilsson BE (1984) Life-style and bone mineral mass in perimenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 36(4):354–356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  470. Sowers MR, Wallace RB, Lemke JH (1985) Correlates of mid-radius bone density among postmenopausal women: a community study. Am J Clin Nutr 41(5):1045–1053

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  471. Slemenda CW, Hui SL, Longcope C, Johnston CC Jr (1989) Cigarette smoking, obesity, and bone mass. J Bone Miner Res 4(5):737–741

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  472. Hollenbach KA, Barrett-Connor E, Edelstein SL, Holbrook T (1993) Cigarette smoking and bone mineral density in older men and women. Am J Public Health 83(9):1265–1270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  473. Chapurlat RD, Ewing SK, Bauer DC, Cummings SR (2001) Influence of smoking on the antiosteoporotic efficacy of raloxifene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86(9):4178–4182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  474. Komulainen M, Kroger H, Tuppurainen MT, Heikkinen AM, Honkanen R, Saarikoski S (2000) Identification of early postmenopausal women with no bone response to HRT: results of a five-year clinical trial. Osteoporos Int 11(3):211–218

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  475. Straub RH, Hense HW, Andus T, Scholmerich J, Riegger GA, Schunkert H (2000) Hormone replacement therapy and interrelation between serum interleukin-6 and body mass index in postmenopausal women: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(3):1340–1344

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  476. Egger P, Duggleby S, Hobbs R, Fall C, Cooper C (1996) Cigarette smoking and bone mineral density in the elderly. J Epidemiol Community Health 50(1):47–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  477. Slemenda CW (1994) Cigarettes and the skeleton. N Engl J Med 330(6):430–431

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  478. Cornuz J, Feskanich D, Willett WC, Colditz GA (1999) Smoking, smoking cessation, and risk of hip fracture in women. Am J Med 106(3):311–314

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  479. Jones G, Scott FS (1999) A cross-sectional study of smoking and bone mineral density in premenopausal parous women: effect of body mass index, breastfeeding, and sports participation. J Bone Miner Res 14(9):1628–1633

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  480. Bjarnason NH, Christiansen C (2000) The influence of thinness and smoking on bone loss and response to hormone replacement therapy in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(2):590–596

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  481. Riggs BL, Melton LJ III (1992) The prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 327(9):620–627

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  482. Aloia JF, Cohn SH, Vaswani A, Yeh JK, Yuen K, Ellis K (1985) Risk factors for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Am J Med 78(1):95–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  483. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, Browner WS, Stone K, Fox KM, Ensrud KE, et al (1995) Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 332(12):767–773

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  484. Forsen L, Bjorndal A, Bjartveit K, Edna TH, Holmen J, Jessen V, et al (1994) Interaction between current smoking, leanness, and physical inactivity in the prediction of hip fracture. J Bone Miner Res 9(11):1671–1678

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  485. Kreiger N, Hilditch S (1986) Re: cigarette smoking and estrogen-dependent diseases. Am J Epidemiol 123(1):200

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  486. Paganini-Hill A, Chao A, Ross RK, Henderson BE (1991) Exercise and other factors in the prevention of hip fracture: the Leisure World study. Epidemiology 2(1):16–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  487. Seeman E, Melton LJ III, O’Fallon WM, Riggs BL (1983) Risk factors for spinal osteoporosis in men. Am J Med 75(6):977–983

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  488. Wickham CA, Walsh K, Cooper C, Barker DJ, Margetts BM, Morris J, et al (1989) Dietary calcium, physical activity, and risk of hip fracture: a prospective study. BMJ 299(6704):889–892

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  489. Felson DT, Kiel DP, Anderson JJ, Kannel WB (1988) Alcohol consumption and hip fractures: the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 128(5):1102–1110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  490. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL (1988) Dietary calcium and risk of hip fracture: 14-year prospective population study. Lancet 2(8619):1046–1049

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  491. Rockville M (1987) Smoking and health, a National Status Report: a report to Congress. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville. DHHS publication No (CDC) 87-8396

    Google Scholar 

  492. Hoidrup S, Prescott E, Sorensen TI, Gottschau A, Lauritzen JB, Schroll M, et al (2000) Tobacco smoking and risk of hip fracture in men and women. Int J Epidemiol 29(2):253–259

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  493. Hoidrup S, Prescott EI, Sorensen TI, Gottschau A, Lauritzen JB, Schroll M, et al (2001) Tobacco smoking and risk of hip fracture in men and women. Results from the Hovedstadens Center for Prospective Population Studies. Tobaksrygning og risiko for hoftebrud hos maend og kvinder. Resultater fra Hovedstadens Center for Prospektive Befolkningsstudier. Ugeskr Laeger 163(40):5532–5536

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  494. Baron JA, Farahmand BY, Weiderpass E, Michaelsson K, Alberts A, Persson I, et al (2001) Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk of hip fracture in women. Arch Intern Med 161(7):983–988

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  495. Michaelsson K, Weiderpass E, Farahmand BY, Baron JA, Persson PG, Ziden L, et al (1999) Differences in risk factor patterns between cervical and trochanteric hip fractures. Swedish Hip Fracture Study Group. Osteoporos Int 10:487–494

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  496. Willett W, Stampfer MJ, Bain C, Lipnick R, Speizer FE, Rosner B, et al (1983) Cigarette smoking, relative weight, and menopause. Am J Epidemiol 117(6):651–658

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  497. Fielding JE (1987) Smoking and women: tragedy of the majority. N Engl J Med 317(21):1343–1345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  498. Grando SA, Horton RM, Pereira EF, Diethelm-Okita BM, George PM, Albuquerque EX, et al (1995) A nicotinic acetylcholine receptor regulating cell adhesion and motility is expressed in human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 105:774–781

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  499. Grando SA, Horton RM, Mauro TM, Kist DA, Lee TX, Dahl MV (1996) Activation of keratinocyte nicotinic cholinergic receptors stimulates calcium influx and enhances cell differentiation. J Invest Dermatol 107:412–418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  500. Nguyen VT, Hall LL, Gallacher G, Ndoye A, Jolkovsky DL, Webber RJ, et al (2000) Choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of human gingival and esophageal epithelia. J Dent Res 79(4):939–949

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  501. Macklin KD, Maus AD, Pereira EF, Albuquerque EX, Conti-Fine BM (1998) Human vascular endothelial cells express functional nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 287:435–439

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  502. Buchli R, Ndoye A, Rodriguez JG, Zia S, Webber RJ, Grando SA (1999) Human skin fibroblasts express m2, m4, and m5 subtypes of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. J Cell Biochem 74:264–277

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  503. Kawashima K, Fujii T (2000) Extraneuronal cholinergic system in lymphocytes. Pharmacol Ther 86(1):29–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  504. Nguyen VT, Ndoye A, Hall LL, Zia S, Arredondo J, Chernyavsky AI, et al (2001) Programmed cell death of keratinocytes culminates in apoptotic secretion of a humectant upon secretagogue action of acetylcholine. J Cell Sci 114(Pt.6):1189–1204

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  505. Heeschen C, Jang JJ, Weis M, Pathak A, Kaji S, Hu RS, et al (2001) Nicotine stimulates angiogenesis and promotes tumor growth and atherosclerosis. Nat Med 7(7):833–839

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  506. Hagforsen E, Edvinsson M, Nordlind K, Michaelsson G (2002) Expression of nicotinic receptors in the skin of patients with palmoplantar pustulosis. Br J Dermatol 146(3):383–391

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  507. Eriksson MO, Hagforsen E, Lundin IP, Michaelsson G (1998) Palmoplantar pustulosis: a clinical and immunohistological study. Br J Dermatol 138(3):390–398

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  508. Scabbia A, Cho KS, Sigurdsson TJ, Kim CK, Trombelli L (2001) Cigarette smoking negatively affects healing response following flap debridement surgery. J Periodontol 72(1):43–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  509. Goldminz D, Bennett RG (1991) Cigarette smoking and flap and full-thickness graft necrosis. Arch Dermatol 127(7):1012–1015

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  510. Partsch B, Jochmann W, Partsch H (1994) [Tobacco and the skin]. Wien Med Wochenschr 144(22–23):565–568

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  511. Wolf R, Lo Schiavo A, Ruocco V (1995) Smoking out the skin. J Appl Cosmetol 13:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  512. Solly S (1856) Clinical lectures on paralysis. Lancet (2):641–643

    Google Scholar 

  513. Martin J (1857) Effects of tobacco in Europeans in India. Lancet 1:226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  514. Ippen M, Ippen H (1965) Approaches to a prophylaxis of skin aging. J Soc Cosmet Chem 16:305–308

    Google Scholar 

  515. Ernster VL, Grady D, Miike R, Black D, Selby J, Kerlikowske K (1995) Facial wrinkling in men and women, by smoking status. Am J Public Health 85(1):78–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  516. Model B (1985) Smokers’ face: an underrated clinical sign? Br Med J 291:1760–1762

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  517. Wolf R, Tur E, Wolf D (1992) The effect of smoking on skin moisture and on surface lipids. Int J Cosmet 14:83–88

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  518. Allen HB, Johnson BL, Diamond SM (1973) Smoker’s wrinkles? JAMA 225(9):1067–1069

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  519. Hind CR, Joyce H, Tennent GA, Pepys MB, Pride NB (1991) Plasma leucocyte elastase concentrations in smokers. J Clin Pathol 44(3):232–235

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  520. Weitz JI, Crowley KA, Landman SL, Lipman BI, Yu J (1987) Increased neutrophil elastase activity in cigarette smokers. Ann Intern Med 107(5):680–682

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  521. Pryor WA, Dooley MM, Church DF (1986) The inactivation of alpha-1-proteinase inhibitor by gas-phase cigarette smoke: protection by antioxidants and reducing species. Chem Biol Interact 57(3):271–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  522. Laurent P, Janoff A, Kagan HM (1983) Cigarette smoke blocks cross-linking of elastin in vitro. Am Rev Respir Dis 127(2):189–192

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  523. Janoff A (1985) Elastase in tissue injury. Annu Rev Med 36:207–216

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  524. Kramps JA, van Twisk C, Klasen EC, Dijkman JH (1988) Interactions among stimulated human polymorphonuclear leucocytes, released elastase and bronchial antileucoprotease. Clin Sci (Colch) 75(1):53–62

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  525. Peng YM, Peng YS, Lin Y, Moon T, Roe DJ, Ritenbaugh C (1995) Concentrations and plasma-tissue-diet relationships of carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols in humans. Nutr Cancer 23(3):233–246

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  526. Yin L, Morita A, Tsuji T (2000) Alterations of extracellular matrix induced by tobacco smoke extract. Arch Dermatol Res 292(4):188–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  527. Carnevali S, Nakamura Y, Mio T, Liu X, Takigawa K, Romberger DJ, et al (1998) Cigarette smoke extract inhibits fibroblast-mediated collagen gel contraction. Am J Physiol 274:L591–L598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  528. Knuutinen A, Kokkonen N, Risteli J, Vahakangas K, Kallioinen M, Salo T, et al (2002) Smoking affects collagen synthesis and extracellular matrix turnover in human skin. Br J Dermatol 146(4):588–594

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  529. Mills CM, Peters TJ, Finlay AY (1993) Does smoking influence acne? Clin Exp Dermatol 18:100–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  530. Schafer T, Nienhaus A, Vieluf D, Berger J, Ring J (2001) Epidemiology of acne in the general population: the risk of smoking. Br J Dermatol 145(1):100–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  531. Mills CM, Srivastava ED, Harvey IM, Swift GL, Newcombe RG, Holt PJ, et al (1994) Cigarette smoking is not a risk factor in atopic dermatitis. Int J Dermatol 33:33–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  532. Lindegard B (1986) Diseases associated with psoriasis in a general population of 159,200 middle-aged, urban, native Swedes. Dermatologica 172(6):298–304

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  533. Olsen JH, Moller H, Frentz G (1992) Malignant tumors in patients with psoriasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 27(5 Pt 1):716–722

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  534. Stern RS, Lange R (1988) Cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause of death in patients with psoriasis: 10 years prospective experience in a cohort of 1,380 patients. J Invest Dermatol 91(3):197–201

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  535. Kavli G, Forde OH, Arnesen E, Stenvold SE (1985) Psoriasis: familial predisposition and environmental factors. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 291(6501):999–1000

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  536. Mills CM, Srivastava ED, Harvey IM, Swift GL, Newcombe RG, Holt PJ, et al (1992) Smoking habits in psoriasis: a case control study. Br J Dermatol 127(1):18–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  537. Naldi L, Parazzini F, Brevi A, Peserico A, Veller FC, Grosso G, et al (1992) Family history, smoking habits, alcohol consumption and risk of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 127(3):212–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  538. O’Doherty CJ, MacIntyre C (1985) Palmoplantar pustulosis and smoking. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 291(6499):861–864

    Article  Google Scholar 

  539. Poikolainen K, Reunala T, Karvonen J (1994) Smoking, alcohol and life events related to psoriasis among women. Br J Dermatol 130(4):473–477

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  540. Poikolainen K (1990) Alcohol intake: a risk factor for psoriasis in young and middle-aged men? Br Med J 300:780–783

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  541. Naldi L, Peli L, Parazzini F (1999) Association of early-stage psoriasis with smoking and male alcohol consumption: evidence from an Italian case-control study. Arch Dermatol 135:1479–1484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  542. Naldi L (1998) Cigarette smoking and psoriasis. Clin Dermatol 16(5):571–574

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  543. Gourlay SG, Forbes A, Marriner T, McNeil JJ (1999) Predictors and timing of adverse experiences during trandsdermal nicotine therapy. Drug Saf 20:545–555

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  544. Aubry F, MacGibbon B (1985) Risk factors of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. A case-control study in the Montreal region. Cancer 55(4):907–911

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  545. Grodstein F, Speizer FE, Hunter DJ (1995) A prospective study of incident squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in the nurses’ health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 87(14):1061–1066

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  546. Karagas MR, Stukel TA, Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Mott LA, Stern RS (1992) Risk of subsequent basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin among patients with prior skin cancer. Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. JAMA 267(24):3305–3310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  547. Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Willett WC, Speizer FE (1990) Risk factors for basal cell carcinoma in a prospective cohort of women. Ann Epidemiol 1(1):13–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  548. Kune GA, Bannerman S, Field B, Watson LF, Cleland H, Merenstein D, et al (1992) Diet, alcohol, smoking, serum beta-carotene, and vitamin A in male nonmelanocytic skin cancer patients and controls. Nutr Cancer 18(3):237–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  549. Osterlind A, Tucker MA, Stone BJ, Jensen OM (1988) The Danish case-control study of cutaneous malignant melanoma. IV. No association with nutritional factors, alcohol, smoking or hair dyes. Int J Cancer 42(6):825–828

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  550. Osterlind A (1990) Malignant melanoma in Denmark. Occurrence and risk factors. Acta Oncol 29(7):833–854

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  551. Tuyp E, Burgoyne A, Aitchison T, MacKie R (1987) A case-control study of possible causative factors in mycosis fungoides. Arch Dermatol 123(2):196–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  552. Daling JR, Sherman KJ, Hislop TG, Maden C, Mandelson MT, Beckmann AM, et al (1992) Cigarette smoking and the risk of anogenital cancer. Am J Epidemiol 135(2):180–189

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  553. Hellberg D, Valentin J, Eklund T, Nilsson S (1987) Penile cancer: is there an epidemiological role for smoking and sexual behaviour? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 295(6609):1306–1308

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  554. Maden C, Sherman KJ, Beckmann AM, Hislop TG, Teh CZ, Ashley RL, et al (1993) History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 85(1):19–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  555. Daniel H (1985) Cause of anal cancer. J Amer Med Assoc 254:358–363

    Google Scholar 

  556. Mabuchi K, Bross DS, Kessler II (1985) Epidemiology of cancer of the vulva. A case-control study. Cancer 55(8):1843–1848

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  557. Newcomb PA, Weiss NS, Daling JR (1984) Incidence of vulvar carcinoma in relation to menstrual, reproductive, and medical factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 73(2):391–396

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  558. Smith JB, Fenske NA (1996) Cutaneous manifestations and consequences of smoking. J Am Acad Dermatol 34(5 Pt 1):717–732

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  559. Ashley FL, McConnell DV, Machida R, Sterling HE, Galloway D, Grazer F (1965) Carcinoma of the lip. A comparison of five year results after irradiation and surgical therapy. Am J Surg 110(4):549–551

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  560. Ratzkowski E, Hochman A, Buchner A, Michman J (1966) Cancer of the lip; review of 167 cases. Oncology 20(2):129–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  561. Spitzer WO, Hill GB, Chambers LW, Helliwell BE, Murphy HB (1975) The occupation of fishing as a risk factor in cancer of the lip. N Engl J Med 293(9):419–424

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  562. Koh HK, Sober AJ, Day CL Jr, Lew RA, Fitzpatrick TB (1984) Cigarette smoking and malignant melanoma. Prognostic implications. Cancer 53(11):2570–2573

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  563. Rohan TE, Miller AB (1999) A cohort study of cigarette smoking and risk of fibroadenoma. J Epidemiol Biostat 4:297–302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  564. Braga C, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Filiberti R, Franceschi S (1996) Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 5:159–164

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  565. Chu SY, Stroup NE, Wingo PA, Lee NC, Peterson HB, Gwinn ML (1990) Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 131:244–253

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  566. Miller MD, Marty MA, Broadwin R, Johnson KC, Salmon AG, Winder B, Steinmaus C (2007) The association between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and breast cancer: a review by the California Environmental Protection Agency. Prev Med 44(2):93–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  567. Austin H, Cole P (1986) Cigarette smoking and leukemia. J Chronic Dis 39(6):417–421

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  568. Brownson RC, Chang JC, Davis JR (1991) Cigarette smoking and risk of adult leukemia. Am J Epidemiol 134(9):938–941

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  569. Brownson RC, Novotny TE, Perry MC (1993) Cigarette smoking and adult leukemia. A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 153(4):469–475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  570. Garfinkel L, Boffetta P (1990) Association between smoking and leukemia in two American Cancer Society prospective studies. Cancer 65(10):2356–2360

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  571. Kinlen LJ, Rogot E (1988) Leukaemia and smoking habits among United States veterans. BMJ 297(6649):657–659

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  572. Mills PK, Newell GR, Beeson WL, Fraser GE, Phillips RL (1990) History of cigarette smoking and risk of leukemia and myeloma: results from the Adventist health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 82(23):1832–1836

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  573. Severson RK, Davis S, Heuser L, Daling JR, Thomas DB (1990) Cigarette smoking and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. Am J Epidemiol 132(3):418–422

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  574. Rollinson S, Roddam P, Willett E, Roman E, Cartwright R, Jack A, et al (2001) NAT2 acetylator genotypes confer no effect on the risk of developing adult acute leukemia: a case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10(5):567–568

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  575. Roddam PL, Rollinson S, Kane E, Roman E, Moorman A, Cartwright R, et al (2000) Poor metabolizers at the cytochrome P450 2D6 and 2C19 loci are at increased risk of developing adult acute leukaemia. Pharmacogenetics 10(7):605–615

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  576. Cartwright RA, Darwin C, McKinney PA, Roberts B, Richards ID, Bird CC (1988) Acute myeloid leukemia in adults: a case-control study in Yorkshire. Leukemia 2(10):687–690

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  577. Schuz J, Kaatsch P, Kaletsch U, Meinert R, Michaelis J (1999) Association of childhood cancer with factors related to pregnancy and birth. Int J Epidemiol 28:631–639

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  578. Stagnaro E, Ramazzotti V, Crosignani P, Fontana A, Masala G, Miligi L, et al (2001) Smoking and hematolymphopoietic malignancies. Cancer Causes Control 12(4):325–334

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  579. Doll R, Peto R (1976) Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years’ observations on male British doctors. Br Med J 2(6051):1525–1536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  580. Flodin U, Fredriksson M, Persson B, Axelson O (1988) Chronic lymphatic leukaemia and engine exhausts, fresh wood, and DDT: a case-referent study. Br J Ind Med 45(1):33–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  581. Kabat GC, Augustine A, Hebert JR (1988) Smoking and adult leukemia: a case-control study. J Clin Epidemiol 41(9):907–914

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  582. Spitz MR, Fueger JJ, Newell GR, Keating MJ (1990) Leukemia and cigarette smoking. Cancer Causes Control 1(2):195–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  583. Hirayama T (1990) Smoking and mortality. S.Karger, Basel, Switzerland, pp 28–59

    Google Scholar 

  584. Linet MS, McLaughlin JK, Hsing AW, Wacholder S, Co-Chien HT, Schuman LM, et al (1991) Cigarette smoking and leukemia: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Causes Control 2(6):413–417

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  585. Engeland A, Andersen A, Haldorsen T, Tretli S (1996) Smoking habits and risk of cancers other than lung cancer: 28 years’ follow-up of 26,000 Norwegian men and women. Cancer Causes Control 7(5):497–506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  586. Shu XO, Ross JA, Pendergrass TW, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Robison LL (1996) Parental alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of infant leukemia: a Childrens Cancer Group study. J Natl Cancer Inst 88(1):24–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  587. Deng J (1985) [The prevalence of the cigarette smoking habit among 110,000 adult residents-in the Shanghai urban area]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 19(5):271–274

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  588. Gong YL, Koplan JP, Feng W, Chen CH, Zheng P, Harris JR (1995) Cigarette smoking in China. Prevalence, characteristics, and attitudes in Minhang district. JAMA 274(15):1232–1234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  589. Ji BT, Shu XO, Linet MS, Zheng W, Wacholder S, Gao YT, et al (1997) Paternal cigarette smoking and the risk of childhood cancer among offspring of nonsmoking mothers. J Natl Cancer Inst 89(3):238–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  590. Golding J, Paterson M, Kinlen LJ (1990) Factors associated with childhood cancer in a national cohort study. Br J Cancer 62(2):304–308

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  591. Li FP, Jamison DS, Meadows AT (1986) Questionnaire study of cancer etiology in 503 children. J Natl Cancer Inst 76(1):31–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  592. Anon (1986) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of childhood cancer. Lancet 2(8505):519–520

    Google Scholar 

  593. Pershagen G, Ericson A, Otterblad-Olausson P (1992) Maternal smoking in pregnancy: does it increase the risk of childhood cancer? Int J Epidemiol 21(1):1–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  594. Stjernfeldt M, Berglund K, Lindsten J, Ludvigsson J (1992) Maternal smoking and irradiation during pregnancy as risk factors for child leukemia. Cancer Detect Prev 16(2):129–135

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  595. Grufferman S, Delzell ES, Maile MC, Michalopoulos G (1983) Parents’ cigarette smoking and childhood cancer. Med Hypotheses 12(1):17–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  596. John EM, Savitz DA, Sandler DP (1991) Prenatal exposure to parents’ smoking and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol 133(2):123–132

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  597. Sorahan T, Lancashire R, Prior P, Peck I, Stewart A (1995) Childhood cancer and parental use of alcohol and tobacco. Ann Epidemiol 5(5):354–359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  598. Sorahan T, Lancashire RJ, Hulten MA, Peck I, Stewart AM (1997) Childhood cancer and parental use of tobacco: deaths from 1953 to 1955. Br J Cancer 75(1):134–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  599. Stjernfeldt M, Berglund K, Lindsten J, Ludvigsson J (1986) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of childhood cancer. Lancet 1(8494):1350–1352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  600. Birch JM, Hartley AL, Teare MD, Blair V, McKinney PA, Mann JR, et al (1990) The inter-regional epidemiological study of childhood cancer (IRESCC): case-control study of-children with central nervous system tumours. Br J Neurosurg 4(1):17–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  601. Buckley JD, Sather H, Ruccione K, Rogers PC, Haas JE, Henderson BE, et al (1989) A case-control study of risk factors for hepatoblastoma. A report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group. Cancer 64(5):1169–1176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  602. Bunin GR, Meadows AT, Emanuel BS, Buckley JD, Woods WG, Hammond GD (1989) Pre- and postconception factors associated with sporadic heritable and nonheritable retinoblastoma. Cancer Res 49(20):5730–5735

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  603. Gold EB, Leviton A, Lopez R, Gilles FH, Hedley-Whyte ET, Kolonel LN, et al (1993) Parental-smoking and risk of childhood brain tumors. Am J Epidemiol 137(6):620–628

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  604. Howe GR, Burch JD, Chiarelli AM, Risch HA, Choi BC (1989) An exploratory case-control study of brain tumors in children. Cancer Res 49(15):4349–4352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  605. Magnani C, Pastore G, Luzzatto L, Terracini B (1990) Parental occupation and other environmental factors in the etiology of leukemias and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas in childhood: a case-control study. Tumori 76(5):413–419

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  606. Severson RK, Buckley JD, Woods WG, Benjamin D, Robison LL (1993) Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption by parents of children with acute myeloid leukemia: an analysis within morphological subgroups – a report from the Childrens Cancer Group. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2(5):433–439

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  607. Shu XO, Gao YT, Brinton LA, Linet MS, Tu JT, Zheng W, et al (1988) A population-based case-control study of childhood leukemia in Shanghai. Cancer 62(3):635–644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  608. Tredaniel J, Boffetta P, Little J, Saracci R, Hirsch A (1994) Exposure to passive smoking during pregnancy and childhood, and cancer risk: the epidemiological evidence. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 8(3):233–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  609. Steensel-Moll HA, Valkenburg HA, Vandenbroucke JP, van Zanen GE (1985) Are maternal fertility problems related to childhood leukaemia? Int J Epidemiol 14(4):555–559

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  610. Michaelis J, Kaletsch U, Kaatsch P (2000) [Epidemiology of childhood brain tumors]. Epidemiologie von Hirntumoren im Kindesalter. Zentralbl Neurochir 61(2):80–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  611. Kane EV, Roman E, Cartwright R, Parker J, Morgan G (1999) Tobacco and the risk of acute leukaemia in adults. Br J Cancer 81:1228–1233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  612. Fraga CG, Motchnik PA, Wyrobek AJ, Rempel DM, Ames BN (1996) Smoking and low antioxidant levels increase oxidative damage to sperm DNA. Mutat Res 351(2):199–203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  613. Little J, Vainio H (1994) Mutagenic lifestyles? A review of evidence of associations between germ-cell mutations in humans and smoking, alcohol consumption and use of ‘recreational’ drugs. Mutat Res 313(2–3):131–151

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  614. Bottoms SF, Kuhnert BR, Kuhnert PM, Reese AL (1982) Maternal passive smoking and fetal serum thiocyanate levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol 144(7):787–791

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  615. Hauth JC, Hauth J, Drawbaugh RB, Gilstrap LC III, Pierson WP (1984) Passive smoking and thiocyanate concentrations in pregnant women and newborns. Obstet Gynecol 63(4):519–522

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  616. Van Vunakis H, Langone JJ, Milunsky A (1974) Nicotine and cotinine in the amniotic fluid of-smokers in the second trimester of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 120(1):64–66

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  617. Brondum J, Shu XO, Steinbuch M, Severson RK, Potter JD, Robison LL (1999) Parental cigarette smoking and the risk of acute leukemia in children. Cancer 85(6):1380–1388

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  618. Korte JE, Hertz-Picciotto I, Schulz MR, Ball LM, Duell EJ (2000) The contribution of benzene to smoking-induced leukemia. Environ Health Perspect 108(4):333–339

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  619. Ong CN, Lee BL, Shi CY, Ong HY, Lee HP (1994) Elevated levels of benzene-related compounds in the urine of cigarette smokers. Int J Cancer 59(2):177–180

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nikotinforschung und Raucherentwöhnung, Fritz-Lickint-Institut für, Johannes Str. 85–87, 99084, Erfurt, Germany

    Prof. Dr. Knut-Olaf Haustein

  2. Institut für Arbeitsmedizin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Thielallee 73, 14195, Berlin, Germany

    Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. David Groneberg

Authors
  1. Prof. Dr. Knut-Olaf Haustein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. David Groneberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Haustein, KO., Groneberg, D. (2010). Other Organ Systems. In: Tobacco or Health?. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-87577-2_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-87577-2_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-87576-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-87577-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation