Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the scientific and clinical progress in the development of non-invasive and invasive brain-computer interfaces (BCI). BCI uses electric, magnetic or metabolic brain activity for the activation and control of external devices and computers. Clinically, until now it has been successfully used as a communication system for totally paralyzed patients (“locked-in patients”), in restoration of movement after stroke or spinal cord injury and the treatment of epilepsy for example. Here we emphasize that BCI technology is a powerful tool to systematically induce neuroplastic changes and therefore has a significant potential to promote innovative approaches in neurorehabilitation. After a short introduction, the mechanisms underlying BCI control will be outlined and an overview of the available invasive and non-invasive BCI systems will be given. The differences and challenges in the use of BCI technology in healthy and patients with neurological disorders will be sketched. Newly developed approaches (i.e., using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to manipulate very localized and subcortical brain changes) and diverse applications of BCIs will be introduced. Besides a critical discussion of limitations and problems in BCI research and clinical application, ethical and quality of life issues will be addressed. The chapter ends with some remarks on future directions in the development of BCI systems introducing invasive and non-invasive neurostimulation techniques that can coequally initiate, enhance or stabilize neuroplastic changes induced by BCI use resulting in behavioral benefits.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Albert S, Rabkin J, Del Bene M, Tider M, Mitsumoto H (2005) Wish to die in end-stage ALS. Neurology, 65:68–74
Bandura A (1969) Social learning of moral judgements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11(3): 275–279
Berger H (1929) Ueber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 87:527–570
Birbaumer N (1999) Slow cortical potentials: Plasticity, operant control, and behavioral effects. The Neuroscientist, 5(2):74–78
Birbaumer N (2006a) Brain-computer-interface research: Coming of age. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117:479–483
Birbaumer N (2006b) Breaking the silence: Brain-computer interfaces (BCI) for communication and motor control. Psychophysiology, 43:517–532
Birbaumer N, Cohen LG (2007) Brain-computer interfaces: Communication and restoration of movement in paralysis. Journal of Physiology, 579:621–636
Birbaumer N, Kimmel H (Eds.) (1979) Biofeedback and Self-Regulation. Hillsdale: Erlbaum
Birbaumer N, Schmidt RF (2005) Biologische Psychologie (6th ed). Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer
Birbaumer N, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Lutzenberger W (1986) Biofeedback of slow cortical potentials in attentional disorders. In W.C. McCallum, R. Zappoli, and F. Denoth (Eds.), Cerebral Psychophysiology: Studies in Event-Related Potentials (pp. 440–442). Amsterdam: Elsevier
Birbaumer N, Elbert T, Canavan A, Rockstroh B (1990) Slow potentials of the cerebral cortex and behavior. Physiological Reviews, 70:1–41
Birbaumer N, Roberts L, Lutzenberger W, Rockstroh B, Elbert T (1992) Area-specific self-regulation of slow cortical potentials on the sagittal midline and its effects on behavior. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 84:353–361
Birbaumer N, Flor H, Cevey B, Dworkin B, Miller NE (1994) Behavioral treatment of scoliosis and kyphosis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 6:623–628
Birbaumer N, Flor H, Lutzenberger W, Elbert T (1995) Chaos and order in the human brain. In G. Karmos and M. Molnar (Eds.), Perspectives of Event-Related Potentials Research (EEG Suppl. 44) (pp. 450–459). Amsterdam: Elsevier
Birbaumer N, Ghanayim N, Hinterberger T, Iversen I, Kotchoubey B, Kübier A, Perelmouter J, Taub E, Flor H (1999) A spelling device for the paralysed. Nature, 398:97–298
Birbaumer N, Veit R, Lotze M, Erb M, Hermann C, Grodd W, Flor H (2005) Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62:799–805
Breitbart W, Rosenfeld B, Penin H (2000) Depression, hopelessness, and desire for hastened death in terminally ill patients with cancer. Journal of American Medical Association, 284:2907–2911
Caria A, Veit R, Sitaram R, Lotze M, Weiskopf N, Grodd W, Birbaumer N (2007) Regulation of anterior insular cortex activity using real-time fMRI. NeuroImage, 35:1238–1246
Cohen H, Kaplan Z, Kotier M, et al. (2004) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in posttraumatic stress disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161:515–524
Cuthbert B, Kristeller J, Simons R, Hodes R, Lang PJ (1981) Strategies of arousal control: Biofeedback, meditation, and motivation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110(4):518–546
DeCharms RC, Maeda F, Glover GH, Ludlow D, Pauly JM, Soneji D, Gabrieli JD, Mackey SC (2005) Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 102(51):18626–18631
Donchin E (1981) Surprise!...Surprise? Psychophysiology, 18:493–513
Donoghue JP (2002) Connecting cortex to machines: Recent advances in brain interfaces. Nature Neuroscience, 5:1085–1088
Dworkin BR, Miller NE (1986) Failure to replicate visceral learning in the acute curarized rat preparation. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100:299–314
Dworkin B, Miller NE, Dworkin S, Birbaumer N, Brines M, Jonas S, Schwentker E, Graham J (1985) Behavioral method for the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 82:2493–2497
Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Lutzenberger W, Birbaumer N (Eds.) (1984) Self-Regulation of the Brain and Behavior. New York: Springer
Engel BT (1981) Clinical biofeedback: A behavioral analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 5(3):397–400
Farwell LA, Donchin E (1988) Talking off the top of your head: Toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 70:510–523
Flor H, Birbaumer N (1993) Comparison of the efficacy of EMG biofeed-back, cognitive behavior therapy, and conservative medical interventions in the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal pain. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61(4):653–658
Fregni F, Boggio PS, Mansur CG, Wagner T, Ferreira MJ, Lima MC, Rigonatti SP, Marcolin MA, Freedman SD, Nitsche MA, Liebetanz D, Antal A, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W (2003) Modulation of cortical excitability by weak direct current stimulation-technical, safety and functional aspects. Supplements of Clinical Neurophysiology, 56:255–276
Fregni F, Simon DK, Wu A, Pascual-Leone A (2005) Non-invasive brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76:1614–1623
Fuchs T, Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Gruzelier JH, Kaiser J (2003) Neurofeed back training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: A comparison with methylphenidate. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 28(1):1–12
Gallese V, Keysers C, Rizzolatti G (2004) A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(9):396–403
Gastaut H (1952) Electrocorticographic study of the reactivity of rolandic rhythm. Review Neurologique (Paris), 87(2):176–182
Gastaut H, Terzian H, Gastaut Y (1952) Study of a little electroencephalographic activity: Rolandic arched rhythm. Marseille Medical, 89(6):296–310
Giacobbe P, Kennedy SH (2006) Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: A psychiatric perspective. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8:437–444
Henderson JM, Lad SP (2006) Motor cortex stimulation and neuropathic facial pain. Neurosurgical Focus, 15(21):E6
Hinterberger T, Veit R, Strehl U, Trevorrow T, Erb M, Kotchoubey B, Flor H, Birbaumer N (2003) Brain areas activated in fMRI during self regulation of slow cortical potentials (SCPs). Experimental Brain Research, 152:113–122
Hinterberger T, Weiskopf N, Veit R, Wilhelm B, Betta E, Birbaumer N (2004) An EEG-driven brain-computer-interface combined with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 51(6):971–974
Hinterberger T, Birbaumer N, Flor H (2005a) Assessment of cognitive function and communication ability in a completely locked-in patient. Neurology, 64:1307–1308
Hinterberger T, Veit R, Wilhelm B, Weiskopf N, Vatine J-J, Birbaumer N (2005b) Neuronal mechanisms underlying control of a brain-computer-interface. European Journal of Neuroscience, 21:3169–3181
Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, Branner A, Chen D, Penn RD, Donoghue JP (2006) Neural ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature, 442:164–171
Hoelzl R, Whitehead W (Eds) (1983) Psychophysiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. New York: Plenum Press
Hoffman RE, Gueorguieva R, Hawkins KA, et al. (2005) Temporoparietal transcranial magnetic stimulation for auditory hallucinations: Safety, efficacy and moderators in a fifty patient sample. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 97–104
Hummel FC, Cohen LG (2006) Non-invasive brain stimulation: A new strategy to improve neuro-rehabilitation after stroke? Lancet Neurology, 5, 708–712
Hummel F et al. (2005) Effects of non-invasive cortical stimulation on skilled motor function in chronic stroke. Brain, 128:490–499
Jackson A, Mavoori J, Fetz EE (2006) Long-term motor cortex plasticity induced by an electronic neural implant. Nature, 444:56–60
Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Vive-Larsen, J, Stoier M, Olsen TS (1995a) Outcome and time course of recovery in stroke. Part II: Time course of recovery. The Copenhagen Stroke Study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 76:406–412. Doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(95)80568-0
Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Vive-Larsen J, Stoier M, Olsen TS (1995b) Outcome and time course of recovery in stroke. Part I: Outcome. The Copenhagen Stroke Study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 76:399–405
Karim AA, Kammer T, Lotze M, Nitsche MA, Godde B, Hinterberger T, Cohen LG, Birbaumer N (2004) Effects of TMS and tDCS on the physiological Regulation of cortical excitability in a Brain-Computer Interface. Biomedical Engineering 49(l):55–57
Kennedy PR, Kirby MT, Moore MM, King B, Mallory A (2004) Computer control using human intracortical local field potentials. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, 12(3):339–344
Khedr EM, Ahmed MA, Fathy N, Rothwell JC (2005) Therapeutic trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation after acute ischemic stroke. Neurology, 65:466–468
Kotchoubey B, Strehl U, Uhlmann C, Holzapfel S, König M, Fröscher W, Blankenhorn V, Birbaumer N (2001) Modification of slow cortical potentials in patients with refractory epilepsy: A controlled outcome study. Epilepsia, 42(3):406–416
Kübler A, Kotchoubey B, Kaiser J, Wolpaw J, Birbaumer N (2001a) Braincomputer communication: Unlocking the locked-in. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3):358–375
Kübler A, Neumann N, Kaiser J, Kotchoubey B, Hinterberger T, Birbaumer N (2001b) Brain-computer communication: Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials for verbal communication. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82:1533–1539
Kübler A, Winter S, Ludolph AC, Hautzinger M, Birbaumer N (2005a) Severity of depressive symptoms and quality of life in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 19(3):182–193
Kübler A, Nijboer F, Mellinger J, Vaughan TM, Pawelzik H, Schalk G, McFarland DJ, Birbaumer N, Wolpaw JR (2005b) Patients with ALS can use sensorimotor rhythms to operate a brain-computer interface. Neurology, 64:1775–1777
Lang P, Bradley M, Cuthbert B (1999) International Affective Picture System. Gainesville, Fl: The Center for Research in Psychophysiology, University of Florida
Lefaucheur JP (2004) Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the management of pain. Clinical Neurophysiology (Supplement), 57:737–748
Logothetis N, Pauls J, Augath M, Trinath T, Oeltermann A (2001) Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature, 412:150–157
Lulé D, Kurt A, Jürgens R, Kassubek J, Diekmann V, Kraft E, Neumann N, Ludolph AC, Birbaumer N, Anders S (2005) Emotional responding in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Journal of Neurology, 252:1517–1524
Lutzenberger W, Birbaumer N, Elbert T (1980) Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in patients with frontal lobe lesions. In: Kornhuber H, Deecke L (eds) Motivation, Motor and Sensory Processes of the Brain, Elsevier, Amsterdam
Mansur CG, Fregni F, Boggio PS et al. (2005) A sham stimulation-controlled trial of rTMS of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients. Neurology, 64:1802–1804
McGrady A, Olson P, Kroon J (1995) Biobehavioral treatment of essential hypertension. In M. Schwartz (Ed.) Biofeedback (2nd ed), New York: Guilford
Miller N (1969) Learning of visceral and glandular responses. Science, 163:434–445
Miniussi C, Bonato C, Bignotti S et al. (2005) Repetitive transcranial magnetic simulation (rTMS) at high and low frequency: An efficacious therapy for major drug-resistant depression? Clinical Neurophysiology, 116:1062–1071
Nicolelis MA (2003) Brain-machine interfaces to restore motor function and probe neural circuits. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(5):417–422
Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C, Birbaumer N (2005) Human brain-computer interface (BCI). In A. Riehle and E. Vaadia (Eds.), Motor Cortex in Voluntary Movements. A Distributed System for Distributed Functions (pp. 367–401). Boca Raton: CRC Press
Plewnia C, Reimold M, Najib A, Reischl G, Plontke SK, Gerloff C (2007) Moderate therapeutic efficacy of positron emission tomography-navigated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for chronic tinnitus: A randomised, controlled pilot study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 78:152–156
Quill TE (2005) ALS, depression, and desire for hastened death: (How) are they related? Neurology, 65:1
Rockstroh B, Elbert T, Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W (1989) Slow Brain Potentials and Behavior (2. Aufl.). Baltimore, MD: Urban & Schwarzenberg
Rockstroh B, Elbert T, Birbaumer N, Wolf P, Düchting-Röth A, Reker M et al. (1993) Cortical self-regulation in patients with epilepsies. Epilepsy Research, 14:63–72
Scherberger H et al. (2005) Cortical local field potentials encodes movement intentions in the posterior parietal cortex. Neuron, 46:347–354
Schneider F, Rockstroh B, Heimann H, Lutzenberger W, Mattes R, Elbert T, Birbaumer N, Bartels M (1992) Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in psychiatric patients: Schizophrenia. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 17(4):277–292
Schwartz AB (2007) Useful signals from motor cortex. Journal of Physiology, 579:581–601
Sellers EW, Donchin EA (2006) A P300 based brain-computer interface: Initial tests by ALS patients. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(3):538–548
Skinner F (1953) Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan
Sterman MB (1977) Sensorimotor EEG operant conditioning: Experimental and clinical effects. The Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 12(2):63–92
Sterman MB (1981) EEG biofeedback: Physiological behavior modification. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 5:405–412
Sterman MB, Clemente CD (1962a) Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: Cortical synchronization induced by basal forebrain stimulation. Experimental Neurology, 6:91–102
Sterman MB, Clemente CD (1962b) Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: Sleep patterns induced by basal forebrain stimulation in the behaving cat. Experimental Neurology, 6:103–117
Sterman MB, and Friar L (1972) Suppression of seizures in an epileptic following sensorimotor EEG feedback training. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 33(l):89–95
Strehl U, Leins U, Goth G, Klinger C, Hinterberger T, Birbaumer N (2006) Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials: A new treatment for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 118:1530–1540
Taylor DM, Tillery SI, Schwartz AB (2002) Direct cortical control of 3D neuroprosthetic devices. Science, 296:1829–1832
Theodore WH (2003) Transcranial magnetic stimulation in epilepsy. Epilepsy Currents, 3:191–197
Weiskopf N, Veit R, Erb M, Mathiak K, Grodd W, Goebel R, Birbaumer N (2003) Physiological self-regulation of regional brain activity using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Methodology and exemplary data. Neurolmage, 19:577–586
Weiskopf N, Scharnowsi F, Veit R, Goebel R, Birbaumer N, Mathiak K (2005) Self-regulation of local brain activity using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Journal of Physiology, Paris, 98:357–373
Weiskopf N, Sitaram R, Josephs O, Veit R, Scharnowski F, Goebel R, Birbaumer N, Deichmann I, Mathiak K (2007) Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging: Methods and applications. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 25:898–1003
Wilhelm B, Jordan M, Birbaumer N (2006) Communication in locked-in syndrome: Effects of imagery on salivary pH. Neurology, 67:534–535
Wolpaw JR (2007) Brain-computer interfaces as new brain output pathways. Journal of Physiology, 579:613–619
Wolpaw JR, McFarland DJ (2004) Control of a two-dimensional movement signal by a noninvasive brain-computer interface in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 101(51): 17849–17854
Yoo SS, Fairneny T, Chen NK, Choo SE, Panych LP, Park H, Lee SY, Jolesz FA (2004) Brain-computer interface using fMRI: spatial navigation by thoughts. Neuroreport, 15:1591–1595
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Soekadar, S.R., Haagen, K., Birbaumer, N. (2008). Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): Restoration of Movement and Thought from Neuroelectric and Metabolic Brain Activity. In: Fuchs, A., Jirsa, V.K. (eds) Coordination: Neural, Behavioral and Social Dynamics. Understanding Complex Systems. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74479-5_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74479-5_11
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-74476-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-74479-5
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)