Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Medical Radiology ((Med Radiol Radiat Oncol))

Abstract

Graves’ disease-related eye signs are a complex of symptoms that describe the response of the eyes and surrounding orbital tissues to an inflammatory and autoimmune disorder related to thyroid disease. For this reason, the symptom entity is more accurately termed an orbitopathy rather than the more often used term of an ophthalmopathy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Apers RC, Oosterhuis JA, Goslings BM, Bierlaagh JJM (1975) Prednisone treatment in endocrine ophthalmopathy. Mod Probl Ophthalmol 14:414–420

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Apers RC, Oosterhuis JA, Bierlaagh JJM (1976) Indications and results of prednisone treatment in thyroid ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmologica 173:163–167

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Aranow H, Day RM (1965) Management of thyrotoxicosis in patients with ophthalmopathy: antithyroid regimen determined primarily by ocular manifestations. J Endocrinol 25:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bahn RS, Gorman CA (1987) Choice of therapy and criteria for assessing treatment outcome in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 16:391–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Barbosa J, Wong E, Doe RP (1972) Ophthalmopathy of Graves’ disease. Outcome after therapy with radioactive iodine, surgery, or antithyroid drugs. Arch Int Med 130:111–113

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Chiovato L, Lepri A, Andreani D, Cavallacci G, Baschieri L, Pinchera A (1983) Orbital irradiation combined with systemic corticosteroids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: comparison with systemic corticosteroids alone. J Endocrinol Metab 56:1139–1144

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F et al (1989) The use of corticosteroids to prevent progression of Graves’ ophthalmopathy after radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. New Engl J Med 321:1349–1352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Barth A, Probst P, Bürgi H (1991) Identification of a subgroup of Graves’ disease patients at higher risk for severe ophthalmopathy after radioiodine. J Endocrinol Invest 14:209–212

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Beckendorf V, Maalouf T, George JL, Bey P, Leclere J, Luporsi E (1999) Place of radiotherapy in the treatment of Graves’ orbitopathy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 43(4):805–815

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Beierwaltes WH (1953) X-ray treatment of malignant exophthalmos: a report on 28 patients. J Endocrinol Metab 13:1090–1100

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Boergen KP (1989) Surgical repair of motility impairment in Graves’ orbitopathy. Dev Ophthalmol 20:159–168

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Brain R, Aterman K, Cope CL, Dunlop DM, Fraser TR, Greene R, Pochin EE, Scowen EF, Trotter WR, Wayne EJ, Hartfall SJ (1955) Cortisone in exophthalmos. Report on a therapeutical trial of cortisone and corticotropin in exophthalmic ophthalmoplegia by a panel appointed by the medical research council. Lancet 1:6–9

    Google Scholar 

  13. Broese JJ, Snnijders-Keilholz A, Jansen JTM, Zoetelief J, Klein C, Seegenschmiedt MH (1999) Assessment of a carcinogenic risk for treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy in dependence on age and irradiation geometry. Radiother Oncol 53:205–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Brown J, Coburn JW, Wigod RA (1963) Adrenal steroid therapy of severe infiltrative ophthalmopathy of Graves’ disease. Am J Med 63:786–795

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Burch HB, Wartofsky L (1993) Graves’ ophthalmopathy: current concepts regarding pathogenesis and management. Endocr Rev 14:747–793

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Burman KD (1991) Treatment of autoimmune ophthalmopathy. Endocrinologist 1:102–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Calissendorff BM, Söderström M, Alveryd A (1986) Ophthalmopathy and hyperthyroidism. A comparison between patients receiving different antithyroid treatments. Acta Ophthamol (Copenh) 64:698–703

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Cennamo G, Bizzaro A, Soricelli A, Dendi B, Bonavolonta G (1980) Correlation between unilateral exophthalmos and thyroid diseases. Ophthalmologica 180:216–220

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Dallow RL (1975) Evaluation of unilateral exophthalmos with ultrasonography, analysis of 258 consecutive cases. Laryngoscope 85:1905–1919

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. DeSanto LW (1984) Transantral orbital decompression. In: Gorman CA, Cambell RJ, Dyer JA (eds) The eye and orbit in thyroid disease. Raven Press, New York, pp 231–252

    Google Scholar 

  21. Dobyns BM (1950) Present concepts of the pathogenesis of exophthalmos. J Clin Endocrinol 10:1202–1230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Dollinger J (1911) Die Druckentlastung der Augenhöhle durch Entfernung der äußeren Orbitawand bei hochgradigem Exophthalmus (Morbus Basedow) und konsekutiver Hornhauterkrankung. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 37:1888–1890

    Google Scholar 

  23. Donaldson SS, Bagshaw MA, Kriss JP (1973) Supervoltage orbital radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 37:276–285

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Donaldson SS, Kriss JP, Mc Dougall IR et al (1982) Orbital irradiation in the treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy-results in 141 consecutive patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 8 (abstract):112–113

    Google Scholar 

  25. Elgood C (ed) (1934) Medicine in Persia. Hoeber, New York, pp 54–55

    Google Scholar 

  26. Esser J (1994) Endokrine Orbitopathie. Eingriffe an den äußeren Augenmuskeln. Ophthalmologe 91:3–19

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Esser J, Sauerwein W, Olbricht T (1995) Corticoid-und Strahlentherapie bei endokriner Orbitopathie. Der Nuklearmediziner 3,18:163–177

    Google Scholar 

  28. Frey FJ, Horber FF, Frey BM (1988) Altered metabolism, decreased efficacy of prednisolone, prednisone in patients with hyperthyroidism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 44:510–521

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Friedrich A, Kamprad F, Goldmann A (1997) Clinical importance of radiotherapy in the treatment of Graves ‘disease. Front Radiat Ther Oncol 30:195–205

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Fries PD (1992) Thyroid dysfunction: Managing the ocular complications of Graves’ disease. Geriatrics 2:58–70

    Google Scholar 

  31. Frilling A, Goretzki PE, Grussendorf M, Erbslöh M, Röher HD (1990) The influence of surgery on endocrine ophthalmopathy. World J Surg 14:442–446

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Frueh BR (1992) Why the NO SPECS classification of Graves’ eye disease should be abandoned with suggestion for the characterization of this disease. Thyroid 2:85–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Garrity JA, Bartley GB, DeSanto LW, Offord KP, Gorman CA (1990) Orbital compression long-term results. In: Wall JR, How J (eds) Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge, MA, pp 171–182

    Google Scholar 

  34. Garrity JA, Saggau DD, Gorman CA, Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Hardwig PW, Dyer JA (1992) Torsional diplopia after transantral orbital decompression and extraocular muscle surgery associated with Graves’ orbitopathy. Am J Ophthamol 113:363–373

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Gorman CA, DeSanto LW, MacCarthy CS, Riley FC (1974) Optic neuropathy of Graves’ disease. Treatment by transantral or transfrontal orbital decompression. N Engl J Med 290:70–75

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Gorman CA, Garrity JA, Fatourechi V, Bahn RS, Petersen IA, Stafford SL et al (2001) Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of orbital radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmology 108(9):1523–1534

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Graves RJ (1835) Clinical lectures. London Med Surg J 7:515–519

    Google Scholar 

  38. Grußendorf M, Nowoczyk V, Horster FA, Krüskamer HL (1988) Standardisierung und Auswertung von klinischen Befunden bei Patienten mit endokriner Ophthalmopathie. Akt Endokr 9:35–44

    Google Scholar 

  39. Hallin ES, Feldon SE (1988) Graves’ ophthalmopathy: II. Correlation of clinical signs with measures derived from computed tomography. Brit J Ophthalmol 72:678–682

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Harner SG (1984) Orbital decompression techniques. In: Gorman CA, Cambell RJ, Dyer JA (eds) The eye and orbit in thyroid disease. Raven Press, New York, pp 221–230

    Google Scholar 

  41. Heyd R, Seegenschmiedt MH, Strassmann G, Micke O, Makoski HB, Zamboglou N and German Cooperative Group on Radiotherapy for Benign Diseases (GCG-BD) (2003) Radiotherapy for Graves’ orbitopathy: results of a national survey. Strahlenther Onkol 179(6):372–376

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hurbli T, Char DH, Harris J, Weaver K, Greenspan F, Sheline G (1985) Radiation therapy for thyroid eye diseases. Am J Ophthalmol 99:633–637

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. ICRU Report 50 (1993) Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Bethesda, MD

    Google Scholar 

  44. Jansen SF (1971) Endocrine ophthalmoplegia. Is it due to myopathy or to mechanical immobilization? Acta Ophthalmol 49:679–684

    Google Scholar 

  45. Jones A (1951) Orbital X-ray therapy for progressive exophthalmos. Br J Radiol 24:637–646

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kahaly G, Beyer J (1988) Immunosupressant therapy of thyroid eye disease. Klin Wochenschr 66:1049–1059

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Kahaly G, Förster G, Pitz S, Rösier HP, Mann W (1997) Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Diagnostik und Therapie der endokrinen Orbitopathie. Dtsch Med Wschr 122:27–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Kahaly GJ, Rosler HP, Pitz S, Hommel G (2000) Low-versus high-dose radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a randomized, single blind trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:102–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Kahaly GJ, Rosier HP, Pitz S, Hommel G (2001) Low-versus high-dose radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a randomized, single blind trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:102–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Hommel G, Dittmar M (2005) Randomized, single blind trial of intravenous versus oral steroid monotherapy in Graves’ orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(9):5234–5240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Kazim M, Trokel SL, Moore S (1991) Treatment of acute Graves’ orbitopathy. Ophthalmology 98:1443–1448

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Kennerdell JS (1990) Orbital decompression: an overview. In: Wall JR, How J (eds) Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge, MA, pp 159–170

    Google Scholar 

  53. Khurana AK, Sunders S, Ahluwalia BK, Malhotra KC (1992) Tear film profile in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Acta Ophthalmol 70:346–349

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Konishi J, Ilda Y, Kasagi K, Misaki T, Arai K, Endo K, Amemiya T, Abe M, Torizuka K (1986) Clinical evaluation of radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Endocrinol Jpn 33:637–644

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kriss JP, Peterson IA, Donaldson SS, My Dougall IR (1989) Supervoltage orbital radiotherapy for progressive Graves’ ophthalmopathy: results of a 20-year experience. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 121:154–159

    Google Scholar 

  56. Liebert F, Lefort A, Gerard C, Parmentier M, Perret J, Ludgate M, Dumont JE, Vassart G (1989) Cloning sequence, expression of the human thyrotropin receptor: evidence for binding of antibodies. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 165:1250–1255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Lloyd WC, Leone CR (1992) Supervoltage orbital radiotherapy in 36 cases of Graves’ disease. Am J Ophthalmol 113:374–380

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. McConahey WM (1984) Medical therapy. In: Gormen CA, Waller RR, Dyer JA (eds) The eye and orbit in thyroid disease. Raven Press, New York, pp 317–324

    Google Scholar 

  59. Means JH (1945) Hyperophthalmic Graves’ disease. Ann Intern Med 23:779–789

    Google Scholar 

  60. Migliori ME, Gladstone GJ (1984) Determination of the normal range of exophthalmometric values for black and white adults. Am J Ophthalmol 98:438–442

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Mourits MP, Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Koornneef L (1997) Clinical acivity score as a guide in the management of patients with Graves’ opthalmopathy. Clin Endocrin 47:9–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Nagayama Y, Kaufmann KD, Seto P, Rapaport B (1989) Molecular cloning, sequence, expression of the CDNA for the human thyrotropin receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 165:1184–1190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Neigel JM, Rootman J, Belkin RJ, Nugent RA, Drance SM, Beattie CW, Spinelli JA (1988) Dysthyroid optic neuropathy: The crowed orbital apex syndrome. Ophthalmology 95:1515–1521

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Newell IW (1986) Ophthalmology principles and concepts, 6th edn. Mosby, St. Louis

    Google Scholar 

  65. Nicoloff JT, Spencer CA (1990) The use, misuse of the sensitive thyrotropin assays. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:553–558

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Olivotto IA, Ludgate CM, Allen LH, Rootman J (1985) Supervoltage radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: CCABC technique and results. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 11:2085–2090

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Palmer D, Greenberg P, Cornell P, Parker RG (1987) Radiation therapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a retrospective analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 13:1815–1820

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Peterson JA, Kriss JP, McDougall JP, et al (1990) Prognostic factors in the radiotherapy of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19:259–264

    Google Scholar 

  69. Pigeon P, Orgiazzi J, Berthezene F, Gerard JP, Haguenauer JP, Mornex R (1987) High voltage orbital radiotherapy and surgical orbital decompression in the management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Horm Res 26:172–176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Pinchera A, Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Panicucci M, Marconcini C, Lepri A, Cavalacci G, Cartei F, Laddaga M (1987) Orbital cobalt radiotherapy and systemic or retrobulbar corticosteroids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Horm Res 26:177–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Pope RM, McGreggor AM (1990) Medical management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. In: Wall JR, How J (eds) Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge MA, pp 95–109

    Google Scholar 

  72. Prummel MF, Mourits MP, Blank L, Berghout A, Koornneef L, Wiersinga WM (1993) Randomized double-blind trial of prednisone versus radiotherapy in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Lancet 342:949–954

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Prummel MF, Bakker A, Wiersinga WM, Baldeschi L, Mourits MP, Kendall-Taylor P, Perros P, Neoh C, Dickinson AJ, Lazarus JH, Lane CM, Heufelder AE, Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Orgiazzi J, Hullo A, Pinchera A, Marcocci C, Sartini MS, Rocchi R, Nardi M, Krassas GE, Halkias A (2003) Multi-center study on the characteristics and treatment strategies of patients with Graves’ orbitopathy: the first European Group on Graves’ Orbitopathy experience. Eur J Endocrinol 148:491–495

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Ravin JG, Sisson JC, Knapp WT (1975) Orbital radiation for the ocular changes of Graves’ disease. Am J Ophthalmol 79:285–288

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Sandler HM, Rubenstein JH, Fowble BL, Sergott RC, Savino PJ, Bosley TM (1989) Results of radiotherapy for thyroid ophthalmopathy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 17:823–827

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Sato M, Hiromatsu Y, Tanaka K, Nonaka K (1992) Role of magnetic resonance imaging in thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: Prediction of therapeutic outcome in active eye disease. Thyroid 2[Suppl 1] (abstract): S34

    Google Scholar 

  77. Seegenschmiedt MH, Keilholz L, Becker W, Gusek G, Naumann GOH, Wolf F, Hensen J, Sauer R (1997) Radiotherapy for severe, progressive thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: Long-erm results with comparison of scoring systems. Front Radiother Oncol 30:218–228

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Sergott RC, Glaser JS (1981) Graves’ ophthalmopathy. A clinical and immunological review. Surv Ophthalmol 26:l–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Sisler HA, Jakobiec FA, Trokel SL (1985) Ocular abnormalities and orbital changes of Graves’ disease. In: Duane TD, Jaeger EA (eds) Clinical ophthalmology, vol 2. Harper & Row, Philadelphia, pp 1–30

    Google Scholar 

  80. Solem JH, Segaard E, Ytteborg J (1979) The course of endocrine ophthalmopathy during antithyroid therapy in a prospective study. Acta Med Scand 205:111–114

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Spector RH, Carlisle JA (1987) Minimal thyroid ophthalmopathy. Neurology 37:1803–1808

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Staar S, Müller RP, Hammer M, Nolte M (1997) Results and prognostic factors in retrobulbar radiotherapy combined with systemic corticosteroids for endocrine orbitopathy (Graves’ disease). Front Radiother Oncol 30:201–206

    Google Scholar 

  83. Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, Wallin G, Ljunggren JG, Blomgren H, Taube A and the Thyroid Study Group (1992) Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. New Engl J Med 326:1733–1738

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Teng CS, Crombie AL, Hall R, Ross WM (1980) An evaluation of supervoltage orbital irradiation for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Clin Endocrinol 13:545–551

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Thomas HM, Woods AC (1936) Progressive exophthalmus following thyroidectomy. Bull Hopkins Hosp 59:99–113

    Google Scholar 

  86. Thyroid Association (1992) Classification of eye changes of Graves’ disease. Thyroid 2:235–236

    Google Scholar 

  87. Topliss D, Volpe R (1982) The immunology of autoimmune thyroid disease. Thyroid Today 5:1–5

    Google Scholar 

  88. Trokel SL, Hilal SK (1979) Recognition and differential diagnosis of enlarged extraocular muscle in computed tomography. Am J Ophthalmol 87:503–512

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Tsujino K, Hirota S, Hagiwara M, Fukada S, Takada Y, Hishikawa Y, Kono M, Abe M (2000) Clinical outcomes of orbital irradiation combined with or without systemic high-dose or pulsed corticosteroids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48(3):857–864

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Utinger RD (1987) Hyperthyroidism. In: Green WL (ed) The thyroid. Elsevier, New York, pp 157–218

    Google Scholar 

  91. Van Dyk HJL (1981) Orbital Graves’ disease. A modification of the NO SPECS’ classification. Ophthalmology 88:479–483

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. van Ouwerkerk BM, Wijngaarde R, Hennemann G, van Andel JG, Krenning JG, (1985) Radiotherapy of severe ophthalmic Graves’ disease. J Endocrinol Invest 8: 241–247

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Werner SC (1966) Prednisone in emergency treatment of malignant exophthalmus. Lancet 1:1004–1007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Werner SC (1969) Classification of the eye changes of Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 29:982–984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Werner SC (1977) Modification of the classification of the eye changes of Graves’ disease: recommendation of the ad hoc committee of the American Thyroid Association. J Clin Endocrinol 44:203–204

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Wiersinga WM, Smit T, Schuster-Uttenhoeve ALJ, van der Gaag R, Koornneef L (1988) Therapeutic outcome of prednisone medication and orbital irradiation in patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmologica 197:75–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Wiersinga WM, Smit T, van der Gaag R (1989) Clinical presentation of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmic Res 21:73–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Wilson WB, Prochoda M (1995) Radiotherapy for thyroid orbitopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 113:1420–1425

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Staar, S., Eich, H.T., Seegenschmiedt, M.H. (2008). Graves’ Orbitopathy. In: Seegenschmiedt, M.H., Makoski, HB., Trott, KR., Brady, L.W. (eds) Radiotherapy for Non-Malignant Disorders. Medical Radiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68943-0_26

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68943-0_26

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-62550-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-68943-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics