Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Entrepreneurship pp 245–265Cite as

Levels of Analysis in Entrepreneurship Research: Current Research Practice and Suggestions for the Future*

  • Chapter

Abstract

In their path-breaking article, Low and MacMillan (1988) suggest that entrepreneurship be defined as the “creation of new enterprise.” The purpose of entrepreneurship research should be to “explain and facilitate the role of new enterprise in furthering economic progress” (p. 141). Such a delineation, they hold, would o- and macro-perspectives. They argue that researchers must acknowledge that entrepreneurship studies could and should be carried out at multiple levels of analysis and that these analyses complement each other. The reasons for studying entrepreneurship on multiple levels of analysis lie in the characteristics of the entrepreneurial phenomenon itself.

Keywords

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ajzen, I., and Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888–918.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Aldrich, H. (1999). Organizations evolving. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldrich, H.A., and Zimmer, C. (1986). Entrepreneurship through social networks. D. Sexton and R. Smilor (Eds.), The art and science of entrepreneurship. Cambridge, MA: Balinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldrich, H.A., Renzuli, L., and Langton, N. (1998). Passing on the privilege: Resources provided by self-employed parents to their self-employed children. K. Liecht (Ed.), Research in social stratification and mobility. Greenwich. CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsos, G. A., and Kolvereid, L. (1998). The gestation process of novice, serial and parallel business founders. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 22(4), 101–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumol, W. J. (1990). Entrepreneurship: Productive, unproductive and destructive. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5), 893–921.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Baumol, W. J. (1993). Entrepreneurship, management and the structure of payoffs. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhave, M. P. (1994). A process model of entrepreneurial venture creation. Journal of Business Venturing 9(3), 223–242.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Birch, D. (1979). The job generating process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Program on Neighborhood and Regional Change.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birley, S., and Stockley, S. (2000) Entrepreneurial teams and venture growth. D. L. Sexion and H, Landström (Eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Entrepreneurship. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. (1996), Resource orientation, entrepreneurial orientation and growth: How the perception of resource availability affects small firm growth. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Rutgers University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. E., and Davidsson, P. (1998). Entrepreneurial orientation versus entrepreneurial management: Relating Miller/Covin and Slevin’s conceptualization of entrepreneurship to Stevenson’s. Paper presented at the 1998 Entrepreneurship Research Conference. Gent, Belgium. May 21–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruno, A. V., and Tyebjee, T. T. (1982). The environment for entrepreneurship. C. A. Kent, D. L, Sexton, and K. H. Vesper (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice flail.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush, C. G. and Chaganti, R, (1997). Resources in new and small ventures: Influences on performance outcomes. Paper presented at the 1997 Babson Entrepreneurship Research Conference. Wellesley, MA. April 17–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush, G., G. Greene. P. G., Hart, M. and Edelman, L. (1997), Resource configurations over the life cycle of ventures. P. D. Reynolds. W. D. Bygrave, N. M. Carter, P. Davidsson, W. B. Gartner, C. M. Mason. and P. P. McDougall (Eds.), Frontiers of entrepreneurship research. Wellesley, MA: Babson College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busenitz, L. W., and Barney, J. B. (1997). Differences between entrepreneurs and managers in small firms: Biases and heuristics in strategic decision-making. Journal of Business Venturing. 12(l), 14–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, N. M., Gartner, W. B., and Reynolds, P. D. (1996). Exploring start-up event sequences, Journal of Business Venturing, 11(3), 151–166.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, G. N., and Hanks, S. H. (1994). Market attractiveness, resource-based capabilities, venture strategies, and venture performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 9(4). 331–349.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Church, A. T., and Burke, P. J. (1994). Exploratory and confirmatory tests of the big five and Telegen’s three and four-dimensional models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1). 93–114.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A. C. (1995), Challenges in predicting new venture performance. I. Bull, H. Thomas, and G. Willard (Eds.), Entrepreneurship: perspectives on theory building. London: Elsevier Science Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper. A. C., and Gimeno-Gascon, F. J. (1992). Entrepreneurs, processes of founding and new firm performance. D. Sexton and J. Kasarda (Eds.), The state of the art in entrepreneurship. Boston. MA: PWS Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A. C., Gimeno-Gascon, F. J., and Woo. C. Y. (1994). Initial human and financial capital as predictors of new venture performance. Journal of Business Venturing 9(5), 371–395.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Covin, J. G., and Slevin, D. P. (1986). The development and testing of an organizational-level entrepreneurship scale. R. Ronstadt, J. A. Hornaday, R. Peterson. and K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Frontiers of entrepreneurship research, pp. 628–639. Wellesley, MA: Babson College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covin, J. G., and Slevin, D.P. (1989). Strategic management of small firms in hostile and benign environments. Strategic Management Journal, 10(January). 75–87.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Covin. J.G., and Slevin, D. P. (1991), A conceptual model of entrepreneurship as firm behavior. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 16 (1). 7–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J., and Blackburn, R. (1994). Small firms and local economic networks. The death of the local economy? London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidsson, P., and Henreksson, M. (forthcoming,). Institutional determinants of the prevalence of start-up and high-growth firms: Evidence from Sweden. Small Business Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidsson, P., and Wiklund, J. (2000). Conceptual and empirical challenges in the study of- firm growth, D. Sexton and H. Landström (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of entrepreneurship. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delmar, F., and Davidsson, P. (2000). Where do they come from! Prevalence and characteristics of nascent entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 12, 1–23.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • DiPrete, T. A., and Forristal, J. D. (1994) Multilevel models: methods and substance. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 331–357.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Fritsch, M. (1992). Regional differences in new firm formation: Evidence from West Gerniany. Regional Studies, 26, 233–241.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Gartner W.B. (1988) “Who is an Entrepreneur” is the wrong question. American Small Business Journal (Spring), 11–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartner, W. B. (1989). Some suggestions for research on entrepreneurial traits and characteristics. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (Fall), 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartner, W. B. and Brush, C, B. (1999). Entrepreneurship as organizing: Emergence, newness, and transformation. Academy of Management Entrepreneurship Division Doctoral Consortium: Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gasse, Y. (1990). Entrepreneurial characteristics inventory: Validation process of an instrument of entrepreneurial profiles (summary). (Eds.), Frontiers in entrepreneurship research, Wellesley, MA: Babson College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gratzer, K. (1996). Smaföretagandets villkor. Automatrestauranger under 1900-talet (Conditions for small firms. Automated restaurants during the twentieth century). Stockholm: Almqvist and Wicksell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gratzer, K. (1999). The making of a new industry-The introduction of fast food in Sweden. B. Johannison and H. Landström (Eds.), Images of entrepreneurship research-Emergent Swedish contributions to academic research. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, P., and Brown, T. (1997). Resource needs and the dynamic capitalism typology. Journal of Business Venturing, 12(3), 161–173.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, E. E. (1962). On the theory of social change: How economic growth begins. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison. B. (1994). Lean and mean: The changing landscape of corporate power in the age of flexibility. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Höglund, B., Lundgren, M., and Songsong, R. (1999). The unit of analysis in entrepreneurship search: A survey of 130 articles, Jönköping, Sweden: The PEG Program. Jönköping International Business School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornaday, R. V. (1990). Dropping the e-words from small business research: An alternative typology. Journal of Small Business Management, 28(4). 22–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B. P. (1990). Toward a multidimensional model of entrepreneurship: The case of achievement motivation and the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 14(3), 39–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamm, J. B., Shuman, J. C., Seeger, J. A., and Nurick, A. J. (1990). Entrepreneurial teams in new venture creation: A research agenda, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 14(4). 7–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeble, D., Potter, J., and Storey, D. J. (1990). Cross national comparisons of the role of SMEs in regional economic growth in the European community. Working paper. Cambridge: University of Cambridge and University of Warwick.

    Google Scholar 

  • Low, M. B., and MacMillan, I. C. (1988). Entrepreneurship: Past research and future challenges. Journal of Management, 14. 139–161.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin, G. T., and Dess, G. G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135–172.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, R., (1991). The secret of the miracle economy. Different national attitudes to competitiveness and money. London: The Social Affaires Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, R. G. (1999). Failing forward: Real options reasoning and entrepreneurial failure. Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 13–30.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. (1983). The correlates of entrepreneurship in three types of firms. Management Science, 29, 770–791.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Miner, J. B. (1996) Evidence for the existence of a set of personality types, defined by psychological tests, that predict entrepreneurial success. P. D. Reynolds, S. Birley, J. E. Butler, W. D. Bygrave, P. Davidsson, W. B. Gartner, and P. P. McDougall (Eds.), Frontiers in entrepreneurship research. Wellesley, MA: Babson College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mölleryd, B. (1999). Entrepreneurship in technological systems-The development of mobile telephony in Sweden. Doctoral dissertation. The Economic Research Institute. Stockholm, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, P., and Ghoshal, S. (1999). Markets, firms, and the process of economic development. Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 390–412.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Mosakowski, E. (1998). Entrepreneurial resources, organizational choices, and competitive outcomes, Organization Science, 9(6), 625–643.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Piore, M.J., and Sabel, C. F. (1984). The second industrial divide. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raffa, M., Zollo, G., and Caponi, R. (1996). The development process of small firms. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 8, 135–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P.D. (1997). Who starts new firms? Preliminary explorations of firms-in-legislation. Small Business Economics, 9, 449–462.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P.D. (1999). Creative destruction: Source or symptom of economic growth? Z. J. Acs., B. Carlsson, and C. Karlsson, (Eds.). Entrepreneurship, small and medium-sized firms and the macroeconomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P.D. (Forthcoming). National panel study of US business start-ups. Background and methodology. J. A. Katz, (Ed.), Advances in entrepreneurship emergence and growth (Vol. 4). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P.D., Hay, M., and Camp, S. M. (1999). Global entrepreneurship monitor: 1999 executive report: Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation: Kansas City, Missouri.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P.D., Storey, D. J. and Westhead, P. (1994). Cross-national comparisons of the variation in new firm formation rates. Regional Studies. 28(4). 443–456.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, P, D., Miller, B., and Maki. W. (1991), Regional characteristics affecting new firm births. N. Churchill, W. Bygrave, J. G. Covin, D. L. Sexton, D. P. Slevin, K. H. Vesper, and W. F. Wetzel, Jr, Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. Babson College: Wellesley, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romano, C., and Ratnatunga, J. (1997). A “citation classics” analysis of articles in contemporary small enterprise research. Journal of Business Venturing, 12, 197–212.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Sarasvathy, S. D. (1999). Decision making in the absence of markets: An empirically grounded model of entrepreneurial expertise. Seattle: School of Business, University of Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumpeter, (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shane, S., and Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217–226.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Shane, S. (1992). Why do some societies invent more than others? Journal of Business Venturing, 7(1), 29–46.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Shapero, A., and Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimension of entrepreneurship. C. A. Kent, D, L. Sexton. and K. 1–1, Vesper (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staber, U. H. (1996). Networks and regional development: Perspectives and unresolved issues. U. H. Staber, N. V. Schaefer, and B. Sharma (Eds.), Business networks. Prospects for regional development. Berlin: Walter de Gruyer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanworth, J., Blythe, S., Granger, B., and Stanworth, C. (1489). Who becomes an entrepreneur? International Small Business Journal, 8(1), 11–22.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Stanworth, M. J. and Curran, J. (1973). Management motivation in the smaller business. Epping, Essex: Gower Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. H., and Jarillo, J. C. (1990). A paradigm of entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial management. Strategic Management Journal, 11 (1), 17–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorton, P.H. (1999). The sociology of entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 19–46.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, A. H., Venkataraman, S., Polley, D., and Garud, R. (1989). Processes of new business creation in different organizational settings. A. H. Van de Ven, H. Angle, and M. S. Poole (Eds.), Research on the management of innovation: The Minnesota studies, pp. 222–226. New York: Harper/Ballinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, A, H., Polley, D. F., Garud, R., and Venkataraman, S. (1999) The innovation journey. Oxford University Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venkataraman, S. (1997). The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research: An editor’s perspective. J. Katz and J. Brockhaus (Eds.), Advances in entrepreneurship, firm emergence and growth, (3). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, S. T. (1995). The role of core capabilities in producing competitive advantage: Longitudinal evidence from the semi conductor silicon industry. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy. NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, S. T., and Kirchhoff, B. A. (1998). The influence of competencies and capabilities on strategies and performance of technology intensive new ventures. Paper presented at the ICSB World Conference, Naples, Italy. June 19–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westhead, P., and Moyes, A. (1992). Reflections on Thatcher’s Britain: Evidence from new production form registration 1980–88. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 5, 21–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiklund, J. (1999). Small firm growth and performance: Entrepreneurship and beyond. Jönköping: Jönköping International Business School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahra, S. (1991). Predictors and financial outcomes of corporate entrepreneurship: An explorative study, Journal of Business Venturing, 6(4), 259–285.

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Zahra, S. A., Karutko, D. F., and Jennings, D. F. (1999). Guest editorial: Entrepreneurship and the acquisition of dynamic organizational capabilities. Entrepreneurship theory and Practice, 10 (Spring), 510.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Jönköping International Business School, Sweden

    Per Davidsson & Johan Wiklund

Authors
  1. Per Davidsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Johan Wiklund
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Business Economics, University Complutense of Madrid, Campus de Somosaguas, 28233, Madrid, Spain

    Álvaro Cuervo

  2. Department of Economics, University of Valencia, Av. de los Naranj os s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain

    Domingo Ribeiro  & Salvador Roig  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Davidsson, P., Wiklund, J. (2007). Levels of Analysis in Entrepreneurship Research: Current Research Practice and Suggestions for the Future* . In: Cuervo, Á., Ribeiro, D., Roig, S. (eds) Entrepreneurship. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-48543-8_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

search

Navigation