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The Palestine Conflict as Reflected in Contemporary Arabic Literature

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The Contemporary Middle Eastern Scene

Part of the book series: Schriften des Deutschen Orient-Instituts ((ORIENT))

Abstract

The present paper starts from the assumption that the study of any literature — in the sense of belles lettres — produced by members of any ethnic group or religious community will offer some information about the basic issues discussed within that group or community at a certain time. It is even to be expected that a close examination of this literary production may offer a deep insight into the various intellectual levels and general direction of discussion within a given group or community. Sometimes this insight may be much deeper than that which is gained from national charters, the programmes of political parties, the talk of newspapermen and radio commentators or statements made by religious leaders.

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Footnotes

  1. For general introductions into the history and development of Arabic literature in the twentieth century see my survey-article in Der Islam (Berlin) 50/1973/325–30. To the titles mentioned there, the following titles of books and articles published since 1973 should be added: S. Moreh: Modern Arabic Poetry 1800 —1970 (Leiden 1976); idem: An Outline of the Development of Modern Arabic Literature, in: OM 55/1975 8–28; Salma Khadra Jayyusi: Trends and Movements in Modern Arabic Poetry, 2 vols. (Leiden 1977 ); R. C. Ostle (ed.): Studies in

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  2. Modern Arabic Literature (Warminster 1975); see also the bibliographical surveys by S. J. Altoma: Modern Arabic Literature. A bibliography.. (Bloomington/Ind., 1975), and A. Borruso/ A. De Simeone: Sul repertorio bibliographico letterario del mondo arabo contemporaneo, in: OM 55/1975/503–508. — For a survey of translations of modern Arabic literature into English see M. B. Alwan in MEJ 26/1972/195–200. For studies on (and translations of) modern Arabic literature published in Russian since 1973 see the bibliographies by S. Shuiski in JAL 6/1975/146–50 and 8/1977/177–187.

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  3. The bulk of modern Arab writings concerning Palestine and the Arab-Israeli conflict, including literature in the sense of belles lettres, is mentioned in the following bibliographies: Naim Shahrabani: The Arab Israeli Conflict. A Bibliography of Arabic Books and Publications (Jerusalem 1973); Ahmad)(firms ‘small al-Khârûf: Filastîn baina `âmay 1948–1972, qâ’ima bibliyûghrâfîya bi-1-kutub (..) al-sâdira fî 1-Mamlaka al-Urdunnîya (Beirut 1973); and idem: Filastîn baina `âmay 1948–1972, qâ’ima (etc.) fî Misr (Beirut 1973). For the treatment of Palestinian topics in Arab journals between 1948 and 1970 see Qâ’ima bibi. li-l-gadîya alfilastinîya fî 1-madjapaât al-`arabîya wa-l-thagâfîya, 1948–1970 ( Beirut 1970 ). The three bibliographies last mentioned are publications of the PLO Research Center.

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  4. For general information see S. J. Altoma: The Treatment of the Palestinian Conflict in Modern Arabic Literature, 1917–1970, in: Middle East Forum (Beirut), 48/1972/1/7–25, and idem: Palestinian Themes in Modern Arabic Literature, 1917 —1970 (Cairo 1972 — not available to me); Adnan Abu-Ghazaleh: Arab Cultural Nationalism in Palestine (Beirut 1973), esp. 58–69.

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  5. The unpublished Ph. D. thesis (U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1971) by H. D. Rowland: The Arab-Israeli Conflict as Represented in Arabic Fictional Literature is not available to me (see review of the typescript version by `[sâ al-Nâ`ûrî in Al-Adîb (Beirut), May 1973, pp. 22–24). — There are, of course, several useful surveys in Arabic, as, e.g., ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-Yâghî: Hayât al-adab al-filastînî al-hadîdth, min awwal al-nanda hattâ I-nakba (Beirut 1968 ).

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  6. An extremely venomous comment on this event was published in the semi-official Baghdad daily Al-Jumhûrîya of November 25, 1977, last page.

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  7. For Algeria and Tunisia, e.g., see the relevant papers presented to the tenth Congress of Arab Writers at Algiers (1975) and published in Vol. IX, no. 6 of Al-Kitâb (Baghdad, 1975), pp. 1146 and 132–55, respectively. For Morocco see `Abbâs al-Jarârî: Qadîyat Filastîn fî 1-shi`r almaghribî hattâ harb Ramadân (Rabat 1975). For examples from the Gulf region of poetry concerning the Palestine conflict see ‘Abd al-Razzâq al-Bash in Al-Kitâb (Baghdad), IX/6 (1975), 156–64. These and other relevant papers and books presented to the above-mentioned Congress may be the result of the fact that a committee on “Literature and the Palestine Problem” had been formed at the 9th Congress of Arab Writers at Tunis (1973), see OM 55/ 1975/51.

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  8. Muhammad Husain al-Saghîr: Filastîn fî 1-shi`r al-nadjaff al-mu`âsir, 1928–1968 (Baghdad, 1968); for the treatment of the Palestine conflict in Saudi literature see Bakrî Shaikh Amîn: al-haraka al-adabiya fî 1-Mamlaka al-`Arabîya al-Su`ûdîya (Beirut 1972 (1973)), 337–52.

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  9. Al-Muqtataf (journal published in Cairo by the Christian Lebanese immigrants Ya`qûb Sarrûf and Fâris Nimr), 22/April 1898/310–11; see also Al-Manâr (Cairo), a journal published by the Muslim Lebanese immigrant Rashid Ridâ, 4/21 (Jan. 1902), 801–09.

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  10. Khairîya Qâsimîya: al-nashât al-sahyûnî if 1-sharq al-`arabî wa-sadâhu, 1908–1918 (Beirut 1973).

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  11. Safa Khulusi: Ma`ruf Ar-Rusafi in Jerusalem, in: Arabic and Islamic Garland. Historical, Educational and Literary Studies presented to Abdul-Latif Tibawi (..), London 1977, pp. 14752; see also ‘Abd al-Rahmân Yâghî: Hayât (note 4 above), 182–85, and Kâmil al-Sawâffrî: AlRusâfî fî Filastîn, in: Al-Kitâb (Baghdad), 9/1975/4/91–97, with comment by Hilâl Nâjí: ibid., 97–99.

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  12. From English translation as given by Khulusi (see note 10), 150, see Arabic text in Yâghî, op. cit., 182–83.

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  13. For biographical data about him see AF, 44–48. Bustânî has published his poetry concerning Palestine in a separate book: Filastînîyât (Beirut 1946 ).

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  14. Khulusi, 150; Yâghî, 184–85.

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  15. Kâmil al-Sawâfîrî: al-shi`r al-`arabî al-hadîth fî ma’sât Filastîn min 1917 ilâ 1955 (Cairo 1963), and idem: al-ittijâhât al-fannîya ff 1-shi`r al-filastînî al-mu`âsir, 1926–1960 (Cairo 1973); Nazîh Abû Nidâl: al-shi`r al-filastînî al-muqâtil (Beirut 1974); ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-Kayyâlî: alshi`r al-filastînî ff nakbat Filastîn (Beirut 1975); see also G. Canova: La poesia della resistenza palestinese, in: OM 51/1971/583–630. — Translations into western languages are to be found, inter alia, in: Abdul Wahab al-Messici (ed.): A Lover from Palestine and other Poems (..), Washington, D.C., 1970; A. K. Germanus: The New Palestinian Poetry from beneath the Cross-fire, in: Islamic Culture (Hyderabad/Deccan), 47/1973/127–58 (translations not reliable); see also the following anthologies: Mounah A. Khouri and H. Algar (eds.): Anthology of Modern Arabic Poetry (London 1974); Anthologie de la littérature arabe contemporaine, III: La poésie, ed. L. Norin and E. Tarabay (Paris 1967 ); A. Schimmel: Zeitgenössische arabische Lyrik (Tübingen and Basel 1975 ).

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  16. For the development of this genre in Palestine and Jordan see Hâshim Yâghî: al.gissa al-qasîra fî Filastîn wa-l-Urdunn, 1850 —1965 (Cairo 1966).

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  17. For authors and titles see Shahrabani (note 2 above), Index p. 288 s.v. “Drama”; A. Abû Shanab in AI-Ma`rifa (Damascus) no. 159/1975/92–103; for the reception of Brecht in modern Arabic literature see the dissertations mentioned in Der Islam 55/1978/146–47.

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  18. There are, e.g. several volumes of memoirs by the ex-chairman of the PLO Executive Committee, Ahmad Shugairî (see biography in AF, 320–30), some of which have been reviewed in JPS, 2/1973/2/131–35 and 3/1973–74/2/142–46; see also E. Kedourie in: Arabic Political Memoirs and Other Studies (London 1974), 188–92. Excerpts, concerning the events of 1948, from the memoirs of Fauzî al-Qâwugjî (Mudhakkirât Fauzî al-Q., 2 vols., Beirut 1975) have been published in English translation in JPS 1/1972/4/27–58 and 2/1972/1/3–33. For the same period see also the memoirs of Jamâl `Abd al-Nâsir, published in English translation ibid., 2/1973/2/ 3–32. Not available to me are the memoirs of a certain Mahmoud Issa, alias Selim: Je suis un fedayin (Paris 1976), see Le Monde (Paris), July 13, 1976, p. 5.

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  19. See G. Hennebelle and Kh. Khayati: La Palestine et le cinema (Paris 1977; reviewed by S. Antonius in JPS 7/1978/2/120–25); regarding Palestinian topics in Arab film scripts: F. Ghâlî in Shu’ûn Filastînîya (Beirut), 45/1975/97–113.

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  20. A(bd al-)L(atif) Tibawi: Visions of the Return. The Palestine Arab Refugees in Arabic Poetry and Art, in: MEJ 17/1963/507–26 (reprinted in idem: Arabic and Islamic Themes, London 1976, pp. 341–54). The quotations below are from MEJ. — About Tibawi see the Festschrift mentioned above note 10, and AF, 390–94.

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  21. About this author see AF, 143–45.

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  22. Arabic text ibid., 145, English translation by Tibawi in: Visions (see note 20), 508.

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  23. From English translation published in Free Palestine (London), May 1978, p.11 (see also ibid., March 1974, p. 6). About Fadwâ Tugân and another prominent Palestinian female writer, i.e. Salmi Khadrâ al-Jayyûsî (see also note 1 above), see G. Canova in OM 53/1973/876–93.

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  24. For a general survey see A.M. Abu-Ghazaleh: The Impact of 1948 on Palestinian Arab Writers. The First Decade, in: Middle East Forum (Beirut) 46/1970/2–3/81–92.

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  25. One of the most recent literary treatments of this event is the four-act play by the Syrian writer `Adnân Mardam: Dair Yâsîn. Masrahîya shi`rîya (Beirut 1977 or 1978, according to Al-Adîb (Beirut), March 1978, pp. 58 and 64).

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  26. Tawâhîn Bairût (Beirut 1972), English translation London 1976: Death in Beirut, p. 69.

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  27. German translation in: Die Taube der Moschee und andere syrische und libanesische Erzählungen, ed. by Sam Kabbani (Herrenalb 1966), 102–7.

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  28. Mahmûd al-Hût (see note 21): Al-mahzala al-`arabîya (Baghdad 1951 ), 1–2, English translation by Tibawi: Visions, 513.

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  29. The situation of the Palestinian refugee is described in a non-fictional way by Fawaz Turki: The Disinherited. Journal of a Palestinian Exile (New York and London 1972); see the same author’s essays in JPS 3/1974/3/3–7; 5/1975–76/1–2/82–96 and 6/1977/3/66–76.

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  30. German translation by Harald Funk: Männer in der Sonnenglut, in: Erkundungen.17 arabische Erzähler, ed. R. Simon, (East-)Berlin 1971, pp. 191–244. This German translation was reprinted in Beirut as a separate booklet in 1973. — About Kanafânî (d.1972) see S. Wild: Der Palästinenser im literarischen Werk G. K.’s, in: Akten des VII. Kongresses (..), ed. A. Dietrich (Göttingen 1976), 395–400, and idem: Ghassan Kanafani. The Life of a Palestinian (Wiesbaden 1975) and the literature mentioned there; also: H. Kilpatrick: Tradition and Innovation in the Fiction of Gh. K., in: JAL 7/1976/3–64, and R. `Ashûr: al-tarîq ilâ 1-khaima al-ukhrâ, dirâsa ff adab Gh. K. (Beirut 1977 ).

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  31. As, e.g., in Kanatânî’s Umm Sal. Qisas filastînîya (Beirut 1969).

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  32. For an analysis based on sociological research see Mark A. Tessler: Israel’s Arabs and the Palestinian Problem, in: MEJ 31/1977/313–29.

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  33. It should be mentioned here that a number of Jewish immigrants to Israel coming from Arab countries continued to write in Arabic at least for some time, see S. Moreh (ed.): Arabic Works by Jewish Writers, 1863 —1973 (Jerusalem 1973 ).

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  34. S. Moreh: Arabic Literature in Israel, in: Middle Eastern Studies (London), 3/1967/283–94. See further Sulafa Hijjawi (trsl.): Poetry of Resistance in Occupied Palestine, 2nd ed. Baghdad 1968; Emile A. Nakhleh: Wells of Bitterness: A Survey of Israeli-Arab Political Poetry, in: Arab World (New York), 16/1970/30–37; Hanan Mikhail Ashrawi: The Contemporary Palestinian Poetry of Occupation, in: JPS 7/1978/3/77–101. — In Arabic: Ghassân Kanafänî: al-adab alfilastinî al-mugawim tahta 1-ihtilâl, 1948–1968 (Beirut 1968); ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-Yâghî: Di-risk fi shi`r al-ard al-muhtalla. Muhâdarât.. (Cairo 1969); Hârûn Hâshim Rashid: al-kalima al-mugatila fi Filastîn (Cairo 1973). About the author last mentioned, himself a poet of note, see AF, 219–21.

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  35. Titles of his earlier works are given in Shahrabani, op.cit., 96; see Rajâ’ al-Naggâsh: M.D., shâ`ir al-ard al-muhtalla (Cairo 1969). English translations of selected poems by M.D. have been published, inter alia, by I. Wedde and F. Tuqan: Selected Poems (of M.D.), Cheadle Hulme (U.K.), 1973, and B.M. Bennani: Splinters of Bone. Poems by M.D. (New York 1974); see also JAL 5/1974/127–33 and 6/1975/101–6, and the anthologies mentioned above, note 14.

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  36. From English translation in Mahmoud Darwish: The Palestinian Chalk Circle, ed. Fifth of June Society, Arab Women’s Information Committee (Beirut s.d.), p. 4.

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  37. From English translation in: Palestine (PLO Information Bulletin, Beirut), 2/1976/8/55; see the same author’s article The Fate of the Arabs in Israel, in: JPS 6/1976/1/92–103.

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  38. For a comprehensive survey of the main topics of Arab polemic literature about Zionism see Y. Harkabi: Arab Attitudes to Israel (Jerusalem 1972).

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  39. Shimon Ballas: The (Ugly) Israeli in Arab Literature, in: New Outlook (Tel Aviv), 17/1974/9/ 78–86. Arab authors, in their turn, detect a number of clichés of — and prejudices toward — the Arabs in modern Hebrew literature. As an example see Ghassân Kanafanî’s article about racial arrogance as reflected in Israeli novels: al-ghatrasa al-`unsurîya fî l-riwâya al-sahyûnîya, in: AlAdâb (Beirut), 14/June 1967/3–5. — According to MEJ 32/1978/2/250, the image of the Arab in modern Hebrew literature has been analysed in three articles (by R. Alter, I. Barzilay and J. Kabakoff) published in Hebrew Studies, 18/1977.

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  40. A collection of essays about the young generation of Israelis by the Egyptian writer and journalist Anîs Mansûr is not available to me, i.e.: al-sabrâ, al jîl al jadîd fî Isrâ’îl (Cairo 1974).

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  41. See, e.g., the life story of the Israeli woman Maryam in Kanafânî’s `A’id ilâ Haifâ (Beirut 1969).

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  42. From English translation in Free Palestine (London), March 1974, p. 6. A selection of al-Asmar’s poems in English translation has been published under the title Dreams on a Mattress of Thorns and Poems from an Israeli Prison (London 1976 ). The author describes his personal experiences in: To be an Arab in Israel (London 1975); see also his article Israel Revisited, in: JPS 6/1977/3/47–65.

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  43. Bassam Tibi: Von der Selbstverherrlichung zur Selbstkritik, in: Die Dritte Welt (Meisenheim), 1/1972/158–84 and 234–36, and S. Wild: Gott and Mensch im Libanon (..), in: Der Islam 48/ 1972/206–53, esp. 211–14.

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  44. For the development of the novel after 1967, especially regarding the conclusions which were drawn from the defeat, see Ilyâs Khûrî: Tajribat al-bahth `an ufuq; muqaddima lidirâsat al-riwâya al-`arabîya ba`da 1-hazîma (Beirut 1974).

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  45. Trevor LeGassick: Some War-Related Arabic Fiction, in: MEJ 25/1971/491–505, esp. 494–97; S. J. Altoma: The Treatment, 21–24. There is an English translation of Barakât’s novel: Days of Dust, trsl. by T. LeGassick (Wilmette, Ill., 1974), see reviews in JPS 4/1975/3/108–9 and MEJ 29/1975/107–8.

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  46. There are a few literary works referring allegorically to the reasons behind Egypt’s defeat under Nâsir’s leadership, see, e.g. Menahem Milson: An Allegory on the Social and Cultural Crisis in Egypt: “Walîd al-`Anâ” by Najîb Mahfûz, in: International Journal of Middle East Studies, 3/1972/324–47.

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  47. Arieh Loya: Poetry as a Social Document: The Social Position of the Arab Woman as Reflected in the Poetry of Nizâr Qabbânî, in: MW 63/1973/39–52.

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  48. The Arabic text of this elegy was first published on page 1 of the Beirut daily Al-Anwâr, Oct. 8, 1970; see S. Moreh: Modern Arabic Poetry (note 1 above), 277.

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  49. Quoted from Donohue (see following footnote), 23; for a comment on Qabbânî’s more optimistic outlook since 1973 see Sukaina al-Shihâbî in Al-Adîb ( Beirut ), January 1978, pp. 16–19.

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  50. John J. Donohue, S. J.: Resurrection and Rebirth. The October War and the New Arab Man, in: CEMAM Reports (Beirut), 2/1973/23–36; Husnî Sayyid Labîb: Harb uktûbar wa in`ikâsuhâ alâ 1-adab, in: Al-Adîb (Beirut), February 1974, pp. 31–33; Edward Hannâ Sa’îd (et al.): al`ubûr ilâ l-mustaqbal: gasâ’id min wahy uktûbar (Cairo 1975 ).

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  51. For a study of the attitude of Lebanese Christian intellectuals toward the Palestine problem up to the early fifties see W. W. Haddad: The Christian Arab Press and the Palestine Question: A Case Study of Michel Chiha of Bayrut’s Le Jour, in: MW 65/1975/119 ff. (See also note 66 below.)

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  52. Death in Beirut, pp. 160, 175–78.

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  53. Ibid., 183–84. For a scholarly description and analysis of the milieu which forms the background of Awwâd’s novel see the recent book by the author of Audat al-tâ’ir (see above, note 54 ), Halîm Barakât, a professor of sociology: Lebanon in Strife. Student Preludes to the Civil War (Austin and London, 1977 ).

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  54. For authors and titles see Shahrabani, op.cit., Index p. 289.

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  55. One of the numerous examples is quoted by Tibawi: Visions, p. 512.

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  56. See H. Busse: Der Islam und die biblischen Kultstätten, in: Der Islam 42/1966/113–47, and Harkabi, op.cit., 132–37.

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  57. For the anti-Zionist attitude of many Christian Arab leaders and intellectuals see Paul Löffler: Arabische Christen im Nahost-Konflikt (Frankfurt/M.1976). The historical background of this attitude is described by Elie Kedourie: The Chatham House Version (London 1970), 317–42, and W. W. Haddad: Christian Arab Attitudes toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, in: MW 67/1977/ 2/127–45.

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  58. For works of modern Arab historiography concerning Palestine see W. Ende: Arabische Nation und islamische Geschichte (Beirut and Wiesbaden, 1977), 110–12, and E. Sivan: Modern Arab Historiography of the Crusades, in: Asian and African Studies (Jerusalem), 8/1972/2/109–149.

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  59. The comparison is used, e.g., in ta`ziya-speeches and sermons commemorating the death of Imam Husain; see Waddah Chrara: Transformations d’une manifestation religieuse dans un village du Liban-Sud (Ashura), Beirut 1968, p. 100 f., and F. Maatouk: La représentation de la mort de l’Imam Hussein à Nabatieh ( Liban-Sud ), Beirut 1974, pp. 92–93.

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  60. Sylvia G. Haim: Arabic Antisemitic Literature. Some preliminary Notes, in: Jewish Social Studies 17/1955/4/307–12 (and comment by Moshe Perlmann ibid., 313–14); Harkabi, op.cit., 223–37 and passim; B. Lewis: Semites and Anti-Semites in: Islam in History. Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East (London 1973 ), 138–57.

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  62. Harkabi, op.cit., 229–37 and 518.

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  63. Al-Adîb (Beirut), August 1974, p. 44 (article by Ja`far al-Khalîlî) and ibid., September 1974, p. 47.

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  64. As examples we may mention Abdallah al-Tall: Khatar al-yahûdîya al-`âlamîya ‘alâ 1-Islâm wa1-Masîhîya (Cairo 1964); Sâbir `Abd al-Rahmân Tu’aima: al-yahûd fî maukib al-ta’rîkh (Cairo 1969); Bashir al-`Auf: al-siyâsa al-marhalîya fi da`wat al-rasûl al-`arabî (etc.), 2nd ed. Beirut 1974; Ahmad Sûsa (an Iraqi irrigation engineer and historian of Jewish origin who was converted to Islam, see his book Fî tarîgî ilâ 1-Islâm, 2 vols., Cairo 1936): al= arab wa-1-yahûd ff 1-ta’rîkh (2nd ed. Damascus 1973 ).

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  65. Biographical data in AF, 52–52; a selection of his poems in English translation was published in London in 1977, i. e. Mouin Beseisso: Poems on the Glass of Windows; see also JAL 5/1964/129.

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  66. Especially Samîh al-Qâsim (born 1939), a left-wing Israeli Arab poet of Druze origin and for a long time considered a supporter of the resistance movement, was taken to task for his signing the declaration. For the ensuing controversy between him and his critics see CEMAM Reports (Beirut) 2/1974/179–80 and the article by H. M. Ashrawi mentioned above note 38.

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  67. As an example we may mention the Egyptian poet Hâfiz Ibrâhîm (1871 —1932), see C. Brockelmann: Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, Suppl. III (Leiden 1942 ), 62.

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  68. See, e.g., Samîh al-Qâsim’s poem “To the Revolutionaries of the Vietcong” in Ghassân Kanafânî’s book al-adab al-filastini al-mugâwim (see note 38), 117–18.

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    Gustav Stein

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    Udo Steinbach

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Ende, W. (1979). The Palestine Conflict as Reflected in Contemporary Arabic Literature. In: Stein, G., Steinbach, U. (eds) The Contemporary Middle Eastern Scene. Schriften des Deutschen Orient-Instituts. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-322-97145-6_16

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