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The Reality of Human Dignity in Law and Bioethics pp 231–244Cite as

The Emergence of Human Dignity in China: From a Private Right to a Constitutional Principle

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Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 71))

Abstract

Just like in Europe, human dignity is a controversial concept in China but mainly for semantic reasons due to different translations of the notion. As a result of a combination of lessons drawn from the Cultural Revolution and references to traditional Chinese culture, the ‘personal dignity or dignity of personality’ (renge zunyan) written in positive laws cannot be understood as a constitutional principle serving as the basis of the political regime and the ultimate value of the legal order. It should rather be seen as an individual civil right endowed with a relative dimension of dignity in order to ensure social cohesion.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Aharon, V. B. (2015). Human Dignity: The Constitutional Value and Constitutional Right. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In France, the report of the committee tasked with reviewing the Preamble to the Constitution, chaired by Simone Veil, pointed out that “under the same root word of dignity, the law uses different meanings”, or even contradictory meanings. On the one hand, the concept of dignity can in fact be seen as an element of the individual. It is then binding on third parties to protect, for example, individual freedom. On the other hand, however, human dignity can be defined from a “certain representation of what is worthy or dignified humanity”. It can then become a general rule imposing limits on individual freedom. Report to the President of the Republic. (2008). Redécouvrir le Préambule de la Constitution. Paris: La Documentation française.

  2. 2.

    Laifan, Lin (2008). Human dignity and personal dignity: thoughts on the interpretation of Article 38 of the Chinese Constitution. Zhejiang Social Sciences, 3:49. 林来梵: 人的尊严与人格尊严:兼论中国宪法第38条的解释方案,载《浙江社会科学》,2008年第3期, 第49页。.

  3. 3.

    The People’s Republic of China has had four constitutions since it was founded in 1949: those of 1954, 1975, 1978 and 1982. Amended four times, in 1988, 1993, 1999 and 2004 respectively, the Constitution of December 04, 1982 is still in force.

  4. 4.

    Formerly written as Chang Peng Chun.

  5. 5.

    Sun Pinghua (2013). Human Rights Protection in China. Heidelberg: Springer, 7–17.

  6. 6.

    On the perception of human dignity by the Confucian school, see An’xian, Luo (2014). Human dignity in traditional Chinese Confucianism. In The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. M. Duwell, J. Braarvig, R. Brownsword and D. Mieth, 177–181. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  7. 7.

    Qing, Jiang (2003). Political Confucianism: The change, the characteristic and the development of modern Confucianism. Sanlian, 321. 蒋庆:《政治儒学——当代儒学的转向、特质与发展》,三联书店2003年,第321页。.

  8. 8.

    Zhang, Qianfan (2000). For human dignity: critiques on traditional Chinese political philosophy and its restructuring. Chinese legal system, 1–4. 张千帆著:《为了人的尊严:中国古典政治哲学批判与重构》,中国民主法制出版社,2012年,第1-4页。.

  9. 9.

    Just like the French Constitution of October 04, 1958, the Chinese Constitution of 1982 is a collection of fundamental standards concerning the organization and functioning of institutions, the relationships between these institutions and the citizens, and the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals. The structure of this fundamental Chinese instrument is as follows: a Preamble, Chapter I on General Principles, Chapter II on The Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, Chapter III on The Structure of the State, Chapter IV The National Flag, the National Anthem, the National Emblem and the Capital.

  10. 10.

    Chongde, Xu (ed.). 1996. Chinese Constitutional Law. The People’s University of China, 418. 许崇德编:《中国宪法》(修订本),中国人民大学出版社1996年版,第418页。.

  11. 11.

    Ibid. 许崇德编:《中国宪法》(修订本),中国人民大学出版社1996年版,第418页。.

  12. 12.

    Heping, Dong, Dayuan, Han and Shuzhong, Li (2000). Constitutional Law. Law publishing, 393. 董和平、韩大元、李树忠:《宪法学》,法律出版社2000年版,第393页。.

  13. 13.

    Law 1990 of December 28, 1990 concerning the protection of the disabled.

  14. 14.

    Law 1991 of September 04, 1991 concerning the protection of minors.

  15. 15.

    Law 1992 of April 03, 1992 concerning the protection of women.

  16. 16.

    Law 1993 of October 31, 1993 concerning the protection of consumers.

  17. 17.

    Law 1994 of December 29, 1994 on prisons.

  18. 18.

    Case of Ni Peilu and Wang Ying vs. International Trade Centre of China of November 08, 1992 concerning the right to honor, in Journal of the Supreme Court of China, 1993, no. 1. 倪培璐、王颖诉中国国际贸易中心侵害名誉权纠纷案 ,载《最高人民法院公报》1993年第1期。.

  19. 19.

    Lixin, Yang (ed.). (2004). The subjects debated in civil and commercial law: moral reparation. The People’s University of China, 8. 杨立新主编:《民商法理论争议问题——精神损害赔偿》,中国人民大学出版社2004年版,第8页。.

  20. 20.

    Judicial interpretation of the Chinese Supreme Court of February 26, 2001. Compared to its foreign counterparts, the Chinese Supreme Court enjoys a broad power of interpretation. Apart from judicial opinions in the form of “special case responses” (ge’an pifu), which resemble the “avis contentieux” in French law, the Supreme Court can abstractly interpret a law or the provisions of a law. In this case, the Supreme Court’s acts of interpretation, through their general character, are similar to implementing decrees, or even an actual piece of legislation, and are therefore exposed to criticism for encroaching on legislative power.

  21. 21.

    Dehua, Tang (ed.). (2004). Understanding and Applying the Interpretation of the Supreme Court concerning moral reparation in civil matters. People’s Courts, 30. 唐德华(主编):《最高人民法院〈关于确定民事侵权精神损害赔偿责任若干问题的解释〉的理解与适用》,

    人民法院出版社2001年版,第30页。.

  22. 22.

    Case of Qian Yuan vs. Watsons of Shanghai in 1998, 钱缘诉上海屈臣氏日用品有限公司搜身侵犯名誉权案: http://www.pkulaw.cn/case_es/pfnl_117672923.html?match=Exact.

  23. 23.

    Second intermediary Court of Shanghai acting as the appeal judge.

  24. 24.

    Called “Das allgemeine Persönlichkeitsrecht”.

  25. 25.

    Shi Chunling. (2010). The attack on and concession of the patrimonial rights in the face of the personality rights. Hebei Law Science, 4:130. 石春玲:“财产权对人格权的积极索取与主动避让”,载《河北法学》2010年第9期,第130页 。.

  26. 26.

    Wang Liming. (2012). The evolution and development of the personality right: reflections on the protection of personal dignity. Legal Science, 4:166. 王利明:“人格权法的发展与完善——以人格尊严的保护为视角”,载《法律科学》2012年第4期,第166页。.

  27. 27.

    The 13th constitutional amendment dated March 15, 1999.

  28. 28.

    Yuhong, Hu (2011). The importance of human dignity in modern law. Studies and exploration, 4:105. 胡玉鸿:“人的尊严在现代法律上的意义”,载《学习与探索》2011年第4期,第105页。.

  29. 29.

    CE Ass., “Commune de Morsang-sur-Orge”, October 27, 1995, 372.

  30. 30.

    Xiangfei, Qu (2009). The constitutional status of the foetus: German and American models. Global Law Review, 6:65. 曲相霏:“胎儿的宪法地位——德国模式与美国模式”,载《环球法律评论》2009年第6期,第65–76页。. Tieyi, L. (2015). The regulation of human embryos in British law. The Academic Journal of the University of Political Science and Law of Eastern China, 5:70. 李铁佚:“英国法上的人体胚胎规制体系”,载《华东政法学报》2015年第5期,第70页。.

  31. 31.

    Lixin, Yang and Yanchun, Cao (2005). The status of the corpse and the applicable rules. Jurists, 4:76. 杨立新、曹艳春:“论尸体的法律属性及其处置规则”,载《法学家》2005年第4期,第76页。.

  32. 32.

    Xiuqin, Shen (2012). The challenge of genetic technology to human dignity, and its constitutional solutions. Journal of Shandong University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 6:20. 沈秀芹, “基因科技对人性尊严的挑战及宪法应对”,载《山东大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2012年第6期,第20页。.

  33. 33.

    For example, Yu, Hou (2006). The constitutional protection of human dignity. The Academic Journal of the Henan Institute of Political Science and Law, 2:145–146. 侯宇 : “论人性尊严的宪法保障”,载《河南省政法管理干部学院学报》2006年第2期,第145–146页。.

  34. 34.

    With regard to the relationship between human dignity and human rights, see Duwell, M. (2014). Human dignity: concepts, discussions, philosophical perspectives. In The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. M. Duwell, J. Braarvig, R. Brownsword and D. Mieth, 28–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  35. 35.

    Case of Zhigang Sun, see Haibo, He (2005). Looking for progress towards the rule of law – The principal events of administrative law (1978–2004). Chinese University of Political and Legal Science, 276. 何海波编著:《法治的脚步声——中国行政法大事记(1978—2004)》,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第276页。.

  36. 36.

    Detention for return (Shourong qiansong) in Chinese law was an administrative measure for temporary placement taken against vagrants and beggars while awaiting their forced return to their country or region of origin.

  37. 37.

    See Article 27, (subpara. 3) of the Regulations on the expropriation and compensation of buildings constructed on state land, dated January 19, 2011.

  38. 38.

    According to official statistics, in 2012, more than 60,000 people were subject to re-education through labor, although this figure could vary from 5000 to 300,000 per year, depending on the political and social situation. See the reportage of Wen Rujun entitled “Re-education through labor is revoked, the remaining part of the sanction will no longer be implemented”, in Legal Daily (fazhi ribao), December 28, 2013. 温如军:“劳教制度正式废止 劳教人员剩余期不再执行”,载《法制晚报》,2013年12月28日。.

  39. 39.

    In 2011 and in 2015.

  40. 40.

    Under the influence of the theory of the limited function of criminal sanctions and in order to avoid judicial errors as in the Hugejiletu case: On April 09, 1996, Hugejiletu, an 18-year-old worker, was sentenced to die on the same day as the judgement was pronounced, just 62 days after the crime. Then years later, following the confession of the true perpetrator of the crime, the case was qualified as a judicial error, but due to obstacles placed in its way by leaders who were police investigators at the time of this case, the revision only took effect in 2014. On December 15, 2014, Hugejiletu was completely exonerated, and his parents obtained compensation of two million yuan for judicial error.

  41. 41.

    The number of offences punishable by the death penalty has fallen considerably. At the time of the promulgation of the criminal law in 1997, capital punishment was applied to 80 offences. Today, after various reforms (see the VIIIth amendment of February 25, 2011 and the IXth amendment of August 29, 2015 of the criminal law), the number of offences liable for the death sentence was only 46.

  42. 42.

    Bastid-Bruguiere, M. 1998. The spirit of Chinese codification. Rights, 27:143.

  43. 43.

    For example, Laifan, Lin (2008). Human dignity and personal dignity: thoughts on the interpretation of Article 38 of the Chinese Constitution. Zhejiang Social Sciences, 3:47–53. 林来梵: “人的尊严与人格尊严:兼论中国宪法第38条的解释方案”, 载《浙江社会科学》2008年第3期, 第47–55页。.

  44. 44.

    Laifan, Lin Human dignity and personal dignity: thoughts on the interpretation of Article 38 of the Chinese Constitution, op. cit. 林来梵: “人的尊严与人格尊严:兼论中国宪法第38条的解释方案”,载《浙江社会科学》2008年第3期, 第53页。.

  45. 45.

    As an example, the right to vote (Article 34), freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom to meet, to associate, to march, and to demonstrate (Article 35), religious freedom (Article 36) and individual freedom (Article 37).

  46. 46.

    The 31 constitutional amendments are divided as follows: in 1988 (1–2), in 1993 (3–11), in 1999 (12–17), and in 2004 (18–31).

  47. 47.

    In the first judicial opinion of July 30, 1955, the High Court expressed the idea that: “the constitutional provisions may not constitute the foundation of the pronouncement of criminal offences and sentences”. In the second of October 28, 1986 concerning the citing of legislative and regulatory instruments in court judgements, the Supreme Court also ruled out the possibility for the judge to invoke the constitutional provisions. For more details about these two judicial opinions, see Zhang, L. (2009). Jurisdictional control of the legality of administrative acts in China: elements of comparative analysis of administrative litigation in China and France. Bruxelles: Bruylant, 501–502.

  48. 48.

    Qi Yuling vs. Chen Xiaoqi and others, in the Bulletin of the Chinese Supreme Court, 2001-5, 158. This case concerned a civil offence violating the right to education. In this case, a woman had been admitted to a specialist vocational school, but had not been notified of this. Another person, having acquired the admission notification, passed herself off as the first. The victim of this unlawful deception only discovered the truth several years later, when the imposter had not only benefited from the training but had also obtained a job on the basis of this training. With the green light given by the Supreme Court in its judicial opinion no. 2001-25 of August 13, 2001, the Superior Court of the province of Shangdong, the appeal judge, on August 23, 2001 ordered the five defendants to pay the victim damages with interest totaling 57,000 Yuan, including 50,000 Yuan for moral prejudice.

  49. 49.

    This case involved Article 46, which grants all citizens a right to education.

  50. 50.

    With regard to the reason for this abrogation, two theories have been put forward: the first concerns the recentralization of the power to interpret the Constitution into the hands of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress to the detriment of the Supreme Court; the second concerns the deposing for corruption of H. Songyou, President of the first civil chamber at the Supreme Court at the time the opinion was given.

  51. 51.

    In China the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPC) ensures the implementation of the Constitution, while exercising the legislative power with the NPC.

  52. 52.

    For more details about these method of scrutiny, see Zhang, Li. Jurisdictional control of the legality of administrative acts in China: elements of comparative analysis of administrative litigation in China and France, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2009, 263–267.

  53. 53.

    See above.

  54. 54.

    In France, while it is the ordinary courts, represented by the Council of State and the Court of Cassation, that are responsible for verifying the conformity of the regulatory acts to the Constitution, in disputes under ordinary law, it is the exclusive responsibility of the Constitutional Council to monitor the constitutionality of the laws.

  55. 55.

    The Kantian maxim is worded as follows: “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end”. Renaut, A. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals. In Metaphysics of Morals, I: Foundation, Introduction, French trans., 108.

  56. 56.

    Ricoeur, P. 1988. In Les Enjeux des droits de l’homme, ed. J.-F. De Raymond, 236. Paris: Larousse.

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  1. China University of Political Science and Law (Zhongguo Zhengfa Daxue), Beijing, China

    Li Zhang

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  1. University of Rennes, Rennes, France

    Brigitte Feuillet-Liger

  2. Columbia University, New York, USA

    Kristina Orfali

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Zhang, L. (2018). The Emergence of Human Dignity in China: From a Private Right to a Constitutional Principle. In: Feuillet-Liger, B., Orfali, K. (eds) The Reality of Human Dignity in Law and Bioethics. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 71. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99112-2_17

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