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Setting the Scene: National and Local Perspectives

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Beyond Suffering and Reparation

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Abstract

This chapter introduces the reader to the idea that an understanding of the adverse effects of material disadvantage and the effects of insecurity, anxiety and lack of social integration will be critical to the success of any future intervention. The chapter begins with an assessment of the historical forces and social, economic, and political processes that shape risk and local reality. This is followed by a brief historical overview of the Shining Path movement. The chapter then examines evidence relating to the official response to the political violence, and to the insights provided by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. To counter the over-objectification of human suffering and reorganise our practical and theoretical ways of thinking about individual and social suffering, this chapter concludes with a discussion concerning the analytic tools needed to explore the situation as people perceive and cognitively construct it.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Leatherman , T., (2011, 33).

  2. 2.

    Kleinman is particularly keen that the subject should not be restricted to one discipline only Kleinman, A., (1988); Kleinman, A. & Kleinman, J., (1997a, b); Locke, (eds) (1997); Burton, J.W., (1990a, b).

  3. 3.

    McClintock , C., (1998: 91).

  4. 4.

    Klaren , P. (2000: 78).

  5. 5.

    Poole , D. & Renique , G. (1992: 102).

  6. 6.

    Klaren , P. (2000: 78).

  7. 7.

    Klaren, P. (2000: 79).

  8. 8.

    Poole , D. & Renique , G. (1992: 103).

  9. 9.

    Poole, D. & Renique, G. (1992: 101ff).

  10. 10.

    Poole, D. & Renique, G. (1992: 107).

  11. 11.

    Mayer , E., (2009: 20).

  12. 12.

    Mayer, E. (2009: 20–21).

  13. 13.

    Mayer, E. (2009: 21).

  14. 14.

    Mayer, E. (2009: 23).

  15. 15.

    Following the inauguration of Alejandro Toledo in 2001evidence emerged that the figures produced by INEI, the official statistics gathering institution were manipulated by the second Fujimori administration and that most of the deterioration in poverty levels took place in 1999 and 2000. INEI (Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática) is a semi-autonomous Peruvian government agency which coordinates, compiles, and evaluates statistical information for the country. However, in the last 4 years of the second Fujimori government (1996–2000) it is generally accepted that the number of poverty living below the poverty line increased from 42.7% to 48.4% (See Javier Herrera, July 2001). See also Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) United Nations for Development (2005); Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas e Informatica Evolucion de la pobreza al 2010 Lima: INEI (2011).

  16. 16.

    The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are: (1) Cangallo (Cangallo)) (2) Huamanga (Ayacucho) (3) Huanca Sancos (Huanca Sancos) (4) Huanta (Huanta) (5) La Mar (San Miguel) (6) Lucanas (Puquio) (7) Parinacochas (Coracora) (8) Paucar del Sara Sara (Pausa) (9) Sucre (Querobamba) (10) Victor Fajardo (Huancapi) (11) Vilcas Huaman (Vilcas Huaman).

  17. 17.

    It has a geographical area of 43,814.8km2 (16,917.0 sq. mi) and a population density of 14/km2 (37/sq. mi). According to the 2005 census the total population was 619,338. This represents a population decline of 2.4% equivalent to a negative growth in population of – 147, 624 since the previous census of 1993. The elevation of the capital is 2746 m (9,009 ft), the highest elevation was 3645 m (11,959 ft) and the lowest elevation is 1800 m (5,900 ft). Information from the Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) (United Nations for Development) (2005) ranks the Department of Ayacucho 20th out of 24 departments (HDI = 0.5095) in relation to data on basic necessities which shows that 82.8% of households have less than basic standard of necessities. In the last population census (INEI, 2011), the Department of Ayacucho has a population of 619,338 inhabitants, 43% of which are under 18 years. The rate of maternal mortality in Ayacucho is 304.7 per 100,000, almost double the national average (163.9) (MINSA, 2001); only 41.5% of pregnant mothers get 4 prenatal check-ups (UNICEF 2004), with a percentage a bit higher for hospital births (47.2%). With regard to child health, the rate of infant mortality in Ayacucho reached 50 per 1000 live births and the rate of mortality for children under 5 years, 68 per 1000, in both cases higher than the national average (43 and 60 respectively). Child malnutrition is also very high: one in three children less than 5 years old in the region suffer from chronic malnutrition (UNICEF 2004). Information from the Ministerio de Educación (MINEDU) (Ministry of Education) indicates that basic educational coverage is almost universal (93% in Ayacucho, compared to 96% at the national level) . However, there are many problems particularly in relation to the quality of multi-grade and single teacher schools, and the lack of appropriate curricula. For families and communities in the rural highlands and other areas with high levels of poverty repetition and dropouts are commonplace. As UNICEF (2004) argues75% of students in areas of poverty are older than they should be for the grade (50% in urban, 60% in rural areas). Ministerio de Salud Dirreccion General de Promocion de la Salud Lima Proyecto 2000 (2001); 2004 PRU: Peru-UNICEF Country Programme Evaluation UNICEF NYHQ; Dewey, K.G., & Begum, K., (2011); Comision de la Verdad y Reconciliacion Informe Final [CVR Final Report] Lima (2003); Scott Palmer, D., (1992); Degregori, I., Coronel, J., del Pino. & Starn, O., (1996); Laplante, L.J., (2007); McCann, I.L. & Pearlman, L.A., (1990a, b); Krznaric, R., (2014); Schwartz, W. (2002); Freire, P., (1998); Baron-Cohen, S., (2011); Buss, D.M. & Malamuth, N. (1996); Domhoff, G. W., & Zweigenhaft, R.L., (1998); Operario, D. & Fiske, S.T., (2001).

  18. 18.

    These production zones include: (1) above 3600 to 4000 m (Zone 1). This is the harshest zone and known as the puna. This is a zone of pastoralism and used for animals such as llamas, alpacas, cattle, sheep and horses. (2) The suni (Zone 2), 3300 to 4000 m (also often termed puna) supports the cultivation of tubers such as potatoes, ocas, ollucos, and mashuas as well as wheat and barley. (3) The quechua (Zone 3) 2400 to 3300 m is the primary cereal producing zone. This supports the cultivation of maize, wheat, barley, bean and other crops. (4) The lowest zone (Zone 4) or yunga lies below 2400 m. Sucb-tropical crops such as coca, plantains, sweet potatoes, yucca, citrus fruits, peppers, chilli and sugar are grown here. See Watters , R. F., (1994: 35ff).

  19. 19.

    It is estimated that more than a million hectares of land have been modified for agricultural purposes throughout the Andean region . The land is modified for use as terraces, the waru-waru (raised fields) and qochas in the altiplano. See Rengifo , G., (1987) La Agricultura Tradicional en los Andes Editorial Horizontal-Lima.

  20. 20.

    Oxalis tuberosa (Oxalidaceae).

  21. 21.

    Ullucus tuberosus.

  22. 22.

    Tropaeolum tuberosum.

  23. 23.

    Lupinus mutabilis.

  24. 24.

    Chenopodium quinoa.

  25. 25.

    See Wolf , E., (1955); (1957) as mentioned by Watters , R. F., (1994: 43ff).

  26. 26.

    Watters, R. F., (1994: 45).

  27. 27.

    See for example, Hornberger , N. H. & King , K. A., (1998); (2001); (2006). Quechua became Peru’s second official language in 1969 under the military regime of Juan Velasco Alvarado.

  28. 28.

    Gonzales , O. M. (2011: 27).

  29. 29.

    Demarest , A. A., Conrad , G. W., (1984: 97).

  30. 30.

    Watters , R. F., (1994: 59).

  31. 31.

    Watters, R. F., (1994: 59).

  32. 32.

    Soil erosion represents 65% of the total cost of agricultural land degradation and soil salinity around 35% in terms of crop yield reductions associated with these damages. See World Bank, (2007) Republic of Peru Environmental Sustainability: A Key to Poverty Reduction in Peru. Country Environmental Analysis.: Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Department Latin America and the Caribbean Region Washington DC.

  33. 33.

    Food and Agriculture Organization (1996) Rome Declaration on Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action.

  34. 34.

    Aguiar, Christine ; Rosenfeld , Josh; Stevens , Beth; Thanasombat , Sup; Masud , Harika (2007) An Analysis of Malnutrition Programming and Policies in Peru; Dewey, KG; Begum, K (2011) Long-term consequences of stunting in early life Matern Child Nutr 7 (3): 5–18. This is reinforced by the results of a study into the rural-urban disparity in malnutrition, which found that Peru had the greatest rural- urban disparity in stunting rates. See also Van de Poel , E; O’Donnell , O; van Doorslaer , E (2007). “Are Urban Children really healthier? Evidence from 47 developing countries” Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper TI 2007–035/3.

  35. 35.

    Wickham-Crowley , T. P, (1992: 245).

  36. 36.

    Degregori , C. I., (1990).

  37. 37.

    Poole , D. & Renique , G. (1992: 40).

  38. 38.

    Poole, D. & Renique, G. (1992: 59).

  39. 39.

    Poole, D. & Renique, G., (1992: 40); Tulchin , J. & Bland , G., (1994: 101).

  40. 40.

    See Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación, Informe Final [CVR Final Report] (Lima, 2003), www.cverdad.org.pe/ifi nal/index.php. Vol. VIII, conclusion 55 at 323. These violations by the state are highlighted in a report carried out for the International Center for Transitional Justice by Cristian Correa who points out that, “...Torture and the commission of sexual violence and rape, for example, were carried out on a massive scale by the armed forces and the vigilante groups it supported. Seventy-five percent of cases of torture received by the CVR and 83 percent of cases of rape were attributed to them (vol. VIII, 64–67). At that time, no investigations or prosecutions of these violations were carried out, and violence spread across the country.” Correa , C. (2013:1).

  41. 41.

    Scott Palmer , D., (1992: 45); Degregori C. I., et al.,(1996: 15).

  42. 42.

    Poole , D. & Renique , G., (1992: 78).

  43. 43.

    Scott Palmer, D. et al., (1992). See also, Degregori, C. I., (1990); Degregori , C. I. et al. (1996).

  44. 44.

    Poole, D. & Renique , G., (1992: 101ff); Tulchin , J. & Bland , G., (1994: 25).

  45. 45.

    World Bank, (1999: 6).

  46. 46.

    Tulchin , J & Bland, G., (1994: 35).

  47. 47.

    Degregori , C. I., (1990).

  48. 48.

    Tulchin, J. & Bland , G. (1994: 101).

  49. 49.

    Oscar Ramirez Durand (Commander Feliciano) remained at large until his capture in the Upper Huallaga Valley in 1999.

  50. 50.

    Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Final Report, September 2003. Available at: http://www.cvevdad.org/pe/ingles/final/index.php

  51. 51.

    Truth and Reconciliation Commission , Final Report, September 2003.

  52. 52.

    Degregori , C. I., et al., (1996).

  53. 53.

    Starn , O. (1991); (1999).

  54. 54.

    M. Tanaka, ‘The Changing Boundaries between Society and Politics’, in J. Crabtree and J. Thomas (eds) Fujimori ’s Peru (1998).

  55. 55.

    Montoya Vivanco , Y. (2012: 161) Responding to Human Rights Violations committed during the internal armed conflict in Peru: the limits and advances of Peruvian criminal justice. In Almqvist , J. & Esposito , C. (2012).

  56. 56.

    In office: 22 November 2000–28 July 2001.

  57. 57.

    Montoya Vivanco , Y. (2012: 172). The recommendation was reiterated in Resolution no DP-2001, adopted on 24 May 2001.

  58. 58.

    The decree that established the Commission (065-PCM-2001, Art 2) set out five overriding aims: (1) To analyse the political, social and cultural conditions and patterns of behaviour that, from society and the institutions of the state, contributed to the tragic situation of violence experienced in Peru; (2) To help in the clarification by the competent judicial institutions of the crimes and human rights violations perpetrated by terrorist organisations or agents of the state, seeking to determine the whereabouts and situation of the victims and identifying to the degree possible those presumed responsible; (3) To produce proposals for making reparation and restoring dignity to the victims and their families; (4) To recommend institutional, legal, educational and other reforms as guarantees that such events would never be repeated, these being considered and implemented through legislation and other political and administrative actions; (5) To establish mechanisms for the implementation of the Commission’s recommendations. Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación, Informe Final [CVR Final Report] (Lima, 2003), www.cverdad.org.pe/ifi nal/index.php

  59. 59.

    Decreto Supremo de Peru , N° 065–2001-PCM., Art. 2(a), available at http://www.cverdad.org.pe/lacomision/cnormas/normasOl.php

  60. 60.

    See for example the Truth Commissions held in South Africa and Sierra Leone, as well as other truth commissions from Latin America, including Guatemala, El Salvador, Argentina, Chile.

  61. 61.

    Laplante , Lisa J. (2007: 14)“.

  62. 62.

    Hatun Willakuy, Version Abreviada del Informe Final de la Comision de la Verdad Y Reconciliacion 337 (2004) [hereinafter Willakuy].

  63. 63.

    This includes Ayacucho, Junin, Huanuco, Huancavelica, Apurimac, and San Martin. See vol. VIII, Conclusiones Generales [General Conclusions], conclusions 4 and 9, at 315–16.

  64. 64.

    These are Junin, Huanuco, Huancavelica, Apurimac, and San Martin.

  65. 65.

    Hatun Willakuy, supra note 66, at 10.

  66. 66.

    Hatun Willakuy, supra note 66, at 339.

  67. 67.

    Hatun Willakuy, supra note 66, at 353–410. For the unabbreviated chapter on the consequences of the conflict, see TRC Final Report, supra note 12, at vol. VIII, pt. 3 as cited in Laplante, L. J. (2007: 17).

  68. 68.

    Laplante , L. J. (2007: 17).

  69. 69.

    LaPlante, L. J. (2007: 18).

  70. 70.

    In its final conclusions the TRC drew attention to the epidemiology of the political violence by saying that “...social exclusion and poverty in Peru has a rural, peasant face;” Hatun Willakuy, supra note 66, at 409. The final nine volume report was officially handed to the interim President Alejandro Toledo , 2 years after it began its work, at a ceremony held in Lima on August 28, 2003.

  71. 71.

    TRC Final Report at Vol. IX, Part 4, Ch. 2 Institutional reform refers generally to a series of recommendations for reforming the state, such as the judicial apparatus, the military and police, the educational system, among others, with an eye towards creating the rule of law and a culture of rights believed necessary for preventing future regression to violence. See Hayner, supra note 8, at 154–69.

  72. 72.

    TRC Final Report, supra note 12, at Vol. IX, Part 4, Ch. 2.2. at p.140.

  73. 73.

    In office 28 July 2001–28 July 2006.

  74. 74.

    Created by Decreto Supremo N° 003–2004-JUS Its purpose is to follow up on state actions and policies in the areas of peace, collective reparations , and national reconciliation. It also has the authority to make awards of pecuniary and non-pecuniary measures to victims of human rights violations, such as disappearances, extrajudicial killings , unjust detention, torture and rape.

  75. 75.

    Law 28,592 of 2005; Decreto 015–2006-JUS, later modified by Decreto 003–2008 JUS.

  76. 76.

    TRC Final Report, supra note 12, at Vol. IX, Part 4, Ch. 2.2.

  77. 77.

    See Falk , R. (2006: 484–5).

  78. 78.

    MIMDES Ministerio de la Mujer y Desarrollo Social (Ministry for Women and Social Development).

  79. 79.

    U. N. Human Rights Council, “...National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21 [Universal Periodic Review]: Peru,” August 7, 2012. From the start of the Humala administration (2011 to present), the pace of reparations has slowed.

  80. 80.

    The programme was defined by Decree 051–2011-PCM as follows: (a) Paying a lump sum of 10,000 soles (USD 3700) per victim (without a clear explanation of how it had reached that amount); (b) Prioritizing the elderly as an equivalent of vulnerability; and (c) Closing the registry of beneficiaries of compensation on December 31, 2011.

  81. 81.

    Correa , C. (2013:1).

  82. 82.

    Correa, C. (2013:21).

  83. 83.

    Correa, C. (2013:23).

  84. 84.

    See Defensoría del Pueblo , “Informe Defensorial No 140 - Salud Mental y Derechos Humanos. Supervisión de la política pública, la calidad de los servicios y la atención a poblaciones vulnerables,” 225–54, www.defensoria.gob.pe/informes-publicaciones.php

  85. 85.

    Defensoría del Pueblo , “Informe Defensorial No 139,” 89–93.

  86. 86.

    See Correa, C., (2013: 27). Further supporting evidence may be obtained from the Coordinadora Nacional de Derechos Humanos http://derechoshumanos.pe/. Additionally, Defensoría del Pueblo, “Informe Defensorial No 139,” 242–45, and Defensoría del Pueblo, “Informe Defensorial No 128 – El Estado frente a las víctimas de la violencia ¿Hasta dónde vamos en políticas de reparación y justicia?,” 215–28.

  87. 87.

    Report: Ten Years after Peru’s Truth Commission, International Center for Transitional Justice (2013) 5 Hanover Square. Floor 24, New York, NY USA 10004.

  88. 88.

    Scott Peck , M., (1983: 214).

  89. 89.

    McCann , I. L., & Pearlman , L. A. (1990a); Pearlman, L. A., & Saakvitne , K. W. (1995).

  90. 90.

    The frustration of basic psychological needs by social conditions is one cause of groups turning against other groups (Burton, J. 1990a, b; Kelman , H. C. 1990; Staub , E. 1989); Dussaillant , F. & Gonzalez , P. A., (2015: 233–251).

  91. 91.

    Baron-Cohen , S. (2011: 13).

  92. 92.

    Staub , E., (1999a, b, c, d, e, f).

  93. 93.

    Krznaric , R., (2014: x).

  94. 94.

    Schwartz W (2002); Schwartz W (2013).

  95. 95.

    For further details of the worldview as people perceive and cognitively construct it see Freire , P., (1998: 73).

  96. 96.

    The idea that the human significance of suffering can be “trivialized to a point that is morally objectionable must not be forgotten.” See Frank (2001) ; Steiner , (1967). This is particularly important in relation to the ways in which Western diagnostic classifications are applied to diverse non-Western survivor populations. See Summerfield , D., (1997: 150).

  97. 97.

    Bracken , P. J., Giller , J. E., Summerfield , D., (1995).

  98. 98.

    Baron-Cohen , S. (2011: 12).

  99. 99.

    See for example, Abramson , Seligman , and Teasdale (1978); Seligman (1975). Furthermore, work has linked low power to feelings of general uncertainty (Anderson and Galinsky 2006) , which itself is often aversive (e.g., Weary et al. 1993). Being powerless is also associated with less access to both physical (e.g., material wealth) and social rewards compared with being powerful (e.g., recognition; Buss, D.M. & Malamuth, N. 1996; Domhoff, G. W., & Zweigenhaft, R.L. 1998; Operario and Fiske 2001).

  100. 100.

    See for example the address by Pope Francis to the Apostolate of the Suffering and the Silent Workers of the Cross in the Paul VI Hall. May 18, 2014.

  101. 101.

    See for example: Regel , S. and Joseph , S., (2010: 75); Zoellner , L. A. and Bittenger , J. N., (2004).

  102. 102.

    Other sources and symptoms of chronic stress and suffering include anxiety, helplessness, isolation, lack of energy and motivation, intensified feelings of guilt and worthlessness, irritability and lethargy, loss of appetite, sleeplessness and insomnia, difficulty making decisions , lack of concentration and suicidal feelings. See for example, Mills , C. & Zavaleta , D., (2015: 251–269).

  103. 103.

    Examples of mental suffering : grief, sadness, depression (mood), disgust, irritation, anger, rage, hate, contempt, jealousy, envy, craving, yearning, frustration, heartbreak, anguish , anxiety, angst, fear, panic, horror , righteous indignation, shame, guilt, remorse, regret, resentment, repentance, embarrassment, humiliation, boredom, apathy, confusion, disappointment, hopelessness, doubt, emptiness, homesickness, loneliness, rejection, pity, self-pity.

  104. 104.

    LaCapra , D., (2001: 86–7); Dussaillant , F. & Gonzalez , P. A., (2015: 233–251).

  105. 105.

    Felman , S. & Laub , D., (1992: x).

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    Timothy James Bowyer

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Bowyer, T.J. (2019). Setting the Scene: National and Local Perspectives. In: Beyond Suffering and Reparation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98983-9_2

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