Abstract
In post-1945 western Europe attempted to avoid future wars by promoting human rights. Yet, implementation immediately proved a problem, particularly as millions of people moved across the continent. Most states acknowledged responsibility for their citizens but hesitated over non-citizens. That issue was particularly pressing for children as they needed schooling in order to eventually become workers and good citizens. An international concern, the Council of Europe and European Community both weighed in, but local states had to implement recommendations. This book uses West Germany as a case study to examine how that right was extended to non-nationals through subsequent waves of European migration. It demonstrates how, despite inclusive rhetoric, access to schooling changed based on citizenship status and perceptions of the other.
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Notes
- 1.
Georg Meck, “Erfolgsgeschichten: Der Aufstieg der Gastarbeiter-Kinder,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, January 8, 2008.
- 2.
Bundesregierung, “Bildung ist Schlüssel für Integration,” June 16, 2016, https://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/2016/06/2016-06-16-bildungsbericht.html
- 3.
Meck, “Erfolgsgeschichten”; Maurice Crul, “Early Education Is Key to Helping Migrant Children Thrive,” The Guardian, September 18, 2016, sec. Opinion, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/sep/18/early-education-key-migrant-children-thrive-integration
- 4.
“The children of migrants” includes second and third generation (and onward) born in the country. Because of complications in language, I am sad to say that I will usually include them in the phrase “migrant children” as well. The problems with that terminology are discussed at greater length in Chap. 6.
- 5.
John Dewey, Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2005); Jürgen Oelkers and Heinz Rhyn, eds., Dewey and European Education: General Problems and Case Studies (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000); UNESCO, “A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All: A Framework for the Realization of Children’s Right to Education and Rights Within Education” (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2007), 7. See also Fernando Reimers, “Citizenship, Identity and Education: Examining the Public Purposes of Schools in an Age of Globalization,” Prospects: Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 36, no. 3 (September 2006): 275–94.
- 6.
V. Mallinson, The western European Idea in Education (New York: Pergamon Press, 1980), 46–67. Several states began compulsory schooling earlier, including the Prussian state. See James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
- 7.
UNESCO, “A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All,” 7.
- 8.
T.H. Marshall, “Citizenship and Social Class,” in The Welfare State Reader, ed. Christopher Pierson and Francis Geoffrey Castles (Malden, MA: Polity, 2006), 30–39.
- 9.
Loveness Mapuva, The Dilemma of Children’s Right to Education in the Era of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme in Zimbabwe Re-Visited (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016), 38; Joel Spring, The Universal Right to Education: Justification, Definition, and Guidelines (New York: Routledge, 2000), 10–11.
- 10.
Daniel Levy and Natan Sznaider, “The Institutionalization of Cosmopolitan Morality: The Holocaust and Human Rights,” Journal of Human Rights 3, no. 2 (June 1, 2004): 143; Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), 183.
- 11.
General Assembly of the United Nations, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” December 10, 1948, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/. For a discussion of some of the conceptual importance and legal design of human rights, see Lynn Avery Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2007); Jean H. Quataert, Advocating Dignity: Human Rights Mobilizations in Global Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2010).
- 12.
For a discussion of how the right to education fit within that need, see Gisella Gori, Towards an EU Right to Education (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001); Klaus Dieter Beiter, The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006); Florentina Burlacu, “Children’s Right to Education,” Euromentor Journal 3, no. 4 (December 2012): 126–36.
- 13.
Pierre Bourdieu, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture, trans. Jean-Claude Passeron, 2nd ed. (London: Sage Publications, 1990).
- 14.
Dewey, Democracy and Education, 115–16.
- 15.
Abdelmalek Sayad, The Suffering of the Immigrant, trans. David Macey (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2004).
- 16.
Paul A. Silverstein, Algeria in France: Transpolitics, Race, and Nation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004); Umut Erel, “Migrating Cultural Capital: Bourdieu in Migration Studies,” Sociology 44, no. 4 (2010): 642–60; Elaine R. Thomas, Immigration, Islam, and the Politics of Belonging in France: A Comparative Framework (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011); Sung-Eun Choi, Decolonization and the French of Algeria: Bringing the Settler Colony Home (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
- 17.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Rev. ed. (London: Verso, 2006).
- 18.
Jus soli is usually translated as “birth right ” and refers to the extension of citizenship based on location of birth—rights and obligations based on the soil on which a person was born. Jus sanguinis, in contrast , is the extension of citizenship based on descent. Between the nineteenth and late twentieth centuries, that citizenship was usually tied to the father’s blood, not the mother’s. See Patrick Weil, “Access to Citizenship: A Comparison of Twenty-Five Nationality Laws,” in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. Thomas Alexander Aleinikoff and Douglas B. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001), 17–35.
- 19.
Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Stephen Castles, Hein de Haas, and Mark J. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 5th ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 110–11.
- 20.
Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, 129–34.
- 21.
Dieter Gosewinkel, “Citizenship in Germany and France at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: Some New Observations on an Old Comparison,” in Citizenship and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Germany, ed. Geoff Eley and Jan Palmowski (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 27–39; Douglas B. Klusmeyer and Demetrios G. Papademetriou, Immigration Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany: Negotiating Membership and Remaking the Nation (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), 53–76.
- 22.
T. H. Marshall defined civil rights in terms of the “status of freedom” and argued that the most important institution for civil rights were the courts of justice (see “Citizenship and Social Class,” in The Welfare State Reader, ed. Christopher Pierson and Francis Geoffrey Castles (Malden, MA: Polity, 2006), 30–32). This book, in contrast, uses standard definitions for civil rights within human rights scholarship: the rights associated with citizenship. For a discussion of multiple sides of that definition, see Alison Brysk and Gershon Shafir, eds., People Out of Place: Globalization, Human Rights and the Citizenship Gap (New York: Routledge, 2004).
- 23.
Daniele Archibugi and Ali Emre Benli, eds., Claiming Citizenship Rights in Europe: Emerging Challenges and Political Agents (New York: Routledge, 2017).
- 24.
Steven Greer, Janneke Gerards, and Rose Slowe, Human Rights in the Council of Europe and the European Union: Achievements, Trends and Challenges (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 328–30.
- 25.
Leonie Herwartz-Emden, Aufwachsen in heterogenen Sozialisationskontexten: zur Bedeutung einer geschlechtergerechten interkulturellen Pädagogik (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2010).
- 26.
Ingrid Gogolin, Ursula Neumann, and Lutz Reuter, eds., Schulbildung für Kinder aus Minderheiten in Deutschland 1989–1999 (Waxmann, 2001). Other scholars have explored the European right to education and programs, including Cristina Allemann-Ghionda, Bildung für alle, Diversität und Inklusion: Internationale Perspektiven (Paderborn: Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh GmbH, 2013).
- 27.
Bridget Anderson, Us and Them?: The Dangerous Politics of Immigration Control (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 1–11.
- 28.
This book is based off archival work done at the European level in the Archives of the Commission of the European Union in Brussels, Council of Europe Archives in Strasbourg, and the OECD Archives in Paris. At the West German federal level, the primary archives used were the Bundesarchiv (BArch) in Koblenz and the Political Archive of the German Foreign Office (PA AA) in Berlin. The Länder archives I used included the Baden-Württemberg Landesarchiv, Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart, the Bayrisches Hauptstaatsarchiv (BayHStA) in Munich, the Landesarchiv Berlin, the Niedersächsisches Landesarchiv—Standort Wolfenbüttel, and the Nordrhein-Westfälisches Hauptstaatsarchiv in Düsseldorf. I also accessed the Archiv des Diakonischen Werkes der Evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands in Berlin, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung: Archiv der sozialen Demokratie in Bonn, and the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research in Braunschweig. My thanks again to the phenomenal archivists and librarians who assisted me with my work.
- 29.
Simon Bulmer and William Paterson, The Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community, Reprint (New York: Routledge, 2014), 6, 180–81.
- 30.
The West German states (Länder) included Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland, and Schleswig-Holstein as well as West Berlin. This book will refer to the collective as Länder for ease of reading. Each of the Länder had different versions of Ministries of Education with frequently changing titles as the states’ governments reorganized multiple times over the four decades of this study. In consequence, this book will refer simply to the Länder Ministries of Education for ease of reading.
- 31.
Stuart Hall, “Who Needs Identity?,” in Questions of Cultural Identity, ed. Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay (London: Sage, 1996), 1–17.
- 32.
Peter O’Brien, “German-Polish Migration: The Elusive Search for a German Nation-State,” International Migration Review 26, no. 2 (Summer 1992): 373–87.
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Lehman, B. (2019). Introduction. In: Teaching Migrant Children in West Germany and Europe, 1949–1992. Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97728-7_1
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