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Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I pp 191–224Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Indic Mercantile Networks and the Indian Ocean World: A Millennial Overview (c. 500–1500 CE)

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Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

Abstract

The Indian Ocean is the maritime face of Asia with South Asia occupying a central geographic position therein. The essay situates a millennium of seafaring, commercial and cultural networks of South Asia in the protracted maritime history of the Indian Ocean by using diverse sources (textual, epigraphic, numismatic, visual, field archaeological and business letters). Particular attention is paid to maritime merchants and their cultural worlds which were marked with vibrant plurality. The essay also underlines the crucial importance of bulk and staple commodities shipped to distant destinations. The Indian Ocean network during the 500–1500 CE phase offers an image of an open sea which was not considered a contested maritime space by major political powers who however appreciated the significance of maritime interactions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jean Deloche (1994) Transportation and Communication in India Prior to Steam Locomotion, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).

  2. 2.

    Michael N. Pearson (1985) “Introduction: The Subject”, in Ashin Das Gupta and Michael N. Pearson (eds.), India and the Indian Ocean 1500–1800 (Calcutta: Oxford University Press), 1–24.

  3. 3.

    Michael N. Pearson (2004) The Indian Ocean[Seas in History] (London, New York: Routledge).

  4. 4.

    Hermann Kulke (2018) History of Precolonial India: Issues and Debates, Rev. and ed. Bhairabi Prasad Sahu (New Delhi: Oxford University Press), 258–280 for an overview of the state of the subject on India and the Indian Ocean Studies. The book provides an excellent bibliography also.

  5. 5.

    Genevieve Bouchon and Denys Lombard (1985) “India and the Indian Ocean in the Fifteenth Century”, in Das Gupta and Pearson (eds.), India and the Indian Ocean, 46–70.

  6. 6.

    Shelomo D. Goitein (1973) Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders (Princeton: Princeton University Press); Shelomo D. Goitein and Mordechai Akiva Friedman (2008) India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza (India Book) (Leiden: E. J. Brill). Friedman considers that “the India trade was the backbone of the medieval international economy” (p. xxi).

  7. 7.

    For the multiple voices of historical sources see Romila Thapar (2004) Somanātha: The Many Voices of a History (New Delhi: Viking).

  8. 8.

    Ingo Strauch (2012) Foreign Sailors at Socotra: The Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq (Bremen: Hempen Verlag); their bearing on the Indic situation is discussed by Ranabir Chakravarti, “Visitors from India to the Island of Socotra”, in Ranabir Chakravarti (2016) Exploring Early India Up to c. AD 1300 (New Delhi: Primus), 454–460.

  9. 9.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (2012) “Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen: The Western Sea-Board of India and the Indian Ocean (c. 500 BCE to 1500 CE)”, in Om Prakash (ed.), The World of the Indian Ocean Merchants 1500–1800 (New Delhi: Pearson), 53–116, here 58–61.

  10. 10.

    D. C. Sircar (1953) “The Charter of Vishnushena, AD 592”, Epigraphia Indica 3, 63–81; the term vaṇiggrāma stands for a professional body of merchants. It would appear as manigramam in south Indian records. The earliest occurrence of this term in Gujarat comes in an inscription from Sanjeli, dated 503 CE. Ranabir Chakravarti (2008) “Three Copper Plates of the Sixth Century AD: Glimpses of Socio-Economic and Cultural Life in Western India”, in Ellen M. Raven (ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1999 (Groningen: Egbert Forsten), 395–399.

  11. 11.

    D. C. Sircar (1983) Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass), 443–451.

  12. 12.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (2011) “The Pull Towards the Coast: Politics and Polity in India (c. 600–1300 CE)”, Presidential Address, Ancient India Section, 73rd Session, Indian History Congress, Patiala, 2011.

  13. 13.

    Radha Champakalakshmi (1996) Trade, Ideology, Urban Centres: South India, c. 300 BC–AD 1300 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).

  14. 14.

    Suchandra Ghosh (2015) Exploring Connectivity: Southeastern Bengal and Beyond (Kolkata: Institute of Social and Cultural Studies); the identification of Harikela with Chittagong is proposed by B. N. Mukherjee (1975) “The Original Territory of Harikela”, Bangladesh Lalitkala 1, 115–119.

  15. 15.

    Ghosh (2015) Exploring Connectivity.

  16. 16.

    The existence of a Bay of Bengal network with the Malay Peninsula is amply borne out by the fifth-/sixth-century inscription of Buddhagupta, a master mariner (mahanāvika) who was a resident of Raktamrittika (Murshidabad District. West Bengal) and who obviously undertook a voyage to the Malay Peninsula, possibly through Tāmralipta. See D. C. Sircar (1965) Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, vol. 1 (Calcutta: University of Calcutta), 497–498. For Xuanzang’s travels in Bengal see the Xiyu ji; Samuel Beal (2003) Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Asian Educational Service [Reprint]), 193–204.

  17. 17.

    Kanad Sinha (2013) “The City, Kāma Culture and din: Shades and Varieties of Urban Life in the Dasakumāracharita”, Journal of the Asiatic Society LV. 73–120 I am most thankful to Kanad Sinha for drawing my attention to the account of Kalinganagara in Daṇḍin’s Daśakumāracharita (XII. 27–28), trans. Isabelle Onians (2010) What Ten Young Men Did (New York: Clay Sanskrit).

  18. 18.

    S. Maqbul Ahmed (1989) Arabic Classical Accounts of India and China Ibn Kuhrdadhbih (Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study); G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, trans. (1980) The Book of Wonders of India (London: East West); E. Sachau (1910) Al Beruni’s India, 2 vols. (London: Trunbar); V. Minrosky, trans. (1937) The Hudud al Alam (London: Haklyut Society); Sharaf al Zaman Tahir Marvazi (1942) China, the Turks and India, trans. V. Minorsky (London: The Royal Asiatic Society); H. A. R. Gibb, trans. (1958) Ibn Baṭṭūṭa’s Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 (London: Hakluyt Society).

  19. 19.

    Kirti N. Chaudhuri (1985) Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

  20. 20.

    Michael Flecker (2001) “A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: The First Evidence for Direct Trade with China”, World Archaeology 32, 335–354. See Chapter 1 in this Volume and II.

  21. 21.

    For an empirically rich overview of ports in Gujarat see V. K. Jain (1989) Trade and Traders in Western India 1000–1300 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal); for Somanātha, see Thapar, Somanātha; and also Ranabir Chakravarti “Looking for a Maritime City: Somanath in the Thirteenth Century CE”, address in memory of R. C. Majumdar, Bangiya Itihas Samiti, 2017. The term mahājanapallī stands for a merchants’ settlement. The prefix Sikottarī probably alludes to these merchants’ dealings and association with Sikottarī/Socotra. This habitat of merchants was located within the port-city of Somanātha.

  22. 22.

    Ranabir Chakravarti has worked on the Konkan maritime trade and ports. See Chakravarti (1986) “Merchants of Konkan”, Indian Economic and Social History Review 23, 177–185; Chakravarti (1998) “Coastal Trade and Voyages in Konkan: The Early Medieval Scenario”, Indian Economic and Social History Review 35, 97–124; and Chakravarti (2016) “An Emergent Coastal Polity: The Konkan Coast Under the Silaharas (Tenth to Thirteenth Century AD)”, Studies in People’s History 3.2, 128–137. Also see Elizabeth Lambourne (2016) “Describing a Lost Camel: Clues for West Asian Mercantile Networks in South Asian Maritime Trade (Tenth-Twelfth Century AD)”, in Marie-Francoise Boussac, Jean-Francois Salles, and Jean-Baptiste Yon (eds.), Ports of the Ancient Indian Ocean (New Delhi: Primus), 351–407; and Jean-Charles Ducene (2016) “The Ports of the Western Coast of India According to Arab Geographers (Eighth-Fifteenth Centuries AD)”, in Marie-Francoise Boussac, Jean-Francois Salles, and Jean-Baptiste Yon (eds.), Ports of the Ancient Indian Ocean (New Delhi: Primus), 165–178.

  23. 23.

    Arjun Appadurai (1936) Economic Conditions in Southern India 1000–1500, vol. 2 (Madras: University of Madras); also see Chakravarti (1986) “Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen”.

  24. 24.

    One of the earliest dated documents regarding Ben Yiju speaks of “the city of Manjarur which is in the land of India in Tuluva of Malibarat, the royal city on the shores of the great sea”. The document has a date corresponding to 17 October 1132 very soon after Ben Yiju had arrived at Mangalore. Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 55. Malibarat is clearly Malabar.

  25. 25.

    For Ben Yiju see the fascinating work of Amitav Ghosh (1990) In an Antique Land (New Delhi: Devi Dayal).

  26. 26.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (2007) Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society, 2nd ed. (New Delhi: Manohar), Chapter on “Information, Exchange and Administration—Case Studies from Early India”, therein.

  27. 27.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 575.

  28. 28.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 343–344.

  29. 29.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 320, 322.

  30. 30.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 599–600.

  31. 31.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 375–376.

  32. 32.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 383.

  33. 33.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 315–316.

  34. 34.

    Goitein and Friedman (2008) India Book, 315–316; also footnote 17 on p. 315; also see Ranabir Chakravarti (2015) “Indian Trade Through Jewish Geniza Letters”, Studies in People’s History 2, 27–40; and Ranabir Chakravarti (2015) “Vibrant Thalassographies of the Indian Ocean: Beyond Nation States”, Studies in History 31, 235–348.

  35. 35.

    Dāmodara (1971) Unniyaṭicharitam, trans. M. G. S. Narayanan (Trivandrum: Kerala University), 68–69.

  36. 36.

    Dāmodara (1971) Unniyaṭicharitam, 68–69.

  37. 37.

    Chakravarti (2007) Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society, 160–186.

  38. 38.

    K. A. Nilakantha Sastri (2012) The Colas (Madras: University of Madras); Y. Subbarayalu (2012) South India Under the Choḷas (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).

  39. 39.

    The importance of the nāḍu as a locality-level administrative tier and as a supra-village organization is argued by Y. Subbarayalu (1973) Political Geography of the Choḷa Empire (Thanjavur: Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology); Burton Stein (1980) Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press); and Kenneth R. Hall (1980) Trade and Statecraft in the Age of the Choḷas (New Delhi: Abhinav) establishes the commercial importance of the nagaram.

  40. 40.

    Noboru Karashima (2009) South Indian Society in Transition: Ancient to Medieval (New Delhi: Oxford University Press), 165–195 and 199–223. As many as 29 commodities are listed by him, the majority of these were clearly agrarian products and become exchangeable commodities. In this context, he also cites a record of 1244 that mentions 11 types of taxes levied in cash (kāsu-āyam). The role of the mercantile bodies in the economic life in south India is discussed in Meera Abraham (1988) Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India (New Delhi: Manohar); Noboru Karashima and Y. Subbaryalu (2002) “Ainnuṛṛuvār: A Supra-Local Organization of South Indian and Sri Lankan Merchants”, in Noboru Karashima, ed. (1997–2002) Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic Sherds (Tōkyō: Taisho University), 72–88.

  41. 41.

    Kenneth Hall (1980) Trade and Statecraft.

  42. 42.

    Tansen Sen (2003) Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations (Singapore: Nalanda-Srivijaya Centre).

  43. 43.

    See Hermann Kulke, K. Kesavapany, and Vijay Sakhuja, eds. (2010) Nāgapaṭṭinam to Suwarṇadīpa: Reflections on the Choḷa Naval Expeditions to South East Asia (New Delhi: Manohar) for various analyses of Cōḷa involvement in the Bay of Bengal. See also Hermann Kulke (1999) “Rivalry and Competition in the Bay of Bengal un the Eleventh Century and Its Bearing on Indian Ocean Studies”, in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard (eds.), Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal 1500–1800 (New Delhi: Manohar), 17–36.

  44. 44.

    K. A. Nilakantha Sastri (1980) “A Tamil Merchant-Guild in Sumatra”, in Idem, South India and Southeast Asia (Mysore: Geetha Book House), 236–247; Y. Subbarayalu (2002) “The Tamil Merchant-Guild Inscription at Barus, Indonesia: A Rediscovery”, in Karashima (ed.), Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities, 19–25. The archaeological perspectives of the area around Barus, excavated by Claude Guillot, are available in Daniel Perret and Heddy Surachman (2011) “South Asia and the Tapanuli Area (North-West Sumatra): Ninth-Fourteenth Centuries”, in Pierre-Yves Manguin, A. Mani, and Geoff Wade (eds.), Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia, Reflections on Cross-Cultural Exchange (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 161–176.

  45. 45.

    V. Rangacharya (1919) A Topographical List of the Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, 2 vols. (Madras: Superintendent, Government Press), 724, no. 92.

  46. 46.

    Nilakantha Sastri (1980) The Choḷas, 300–341 is used here for the political history of Kulottuṅga’s reign.

  47. 47.

    Karashima (2002) Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities, 236–237 for three inscriptions referring to both the names of the port.

  48. 48.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (1995) “Rulers and Ports: Visakhapattanam and Motuppalli in Early Medieval Andhra”, in K. S. Mathew (ed.), Mariners, Merchants and Oceans (New Delhi: Manohar), 57–78.

  49. 49.

    Noboru Karashima and Tansen Sen (2010) “Chinese Texts Describing or Referring to the Choḷa Kingdom as Zhu-nian”, in Hermann Kulke, K. Kesavapany, and Vijay Sukhija (eds.), From Nagapattinam to Suwarnadwipa, Reflections on the Choḷa Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia (New Delhi: Manohar, 2010), 292–316. For the bearing of Zhao Rugua to the South Asian commercial scenario see Suchandra Ghosh (2014) “South-East Asia and the Eastern Sea-Board of India Through the Lens of Zhao Ru Gua”, in Radhika Seshan (ed.), Convergence: Rethinking India’s Past (New Delhi: Primus), 41–54 without, however, an assessment of the recent textual analysis by Karashima and Sen, stated above.

  50. 50.

    For these two inscriptions see footnote 82.

  51. 51.

    Chakravarti (2011) “The Pull Towards the Coast” discusses the Kākatīya interests in the Andhra coastal areas. However, Cynthia Talbott (2001) in her Pre-Colonial India in Practice (New York: Oxford University Press) offers an excellent study of the Kākatīya state. But Talbott prefers to ignore the clear epigraphic and textual data of the importance of coastal Andhra in the making of this a formidable regional power of the thirteenth century. The interaction between trade and statecraft takes a back seat in her overall analysis. The field archaeological perspectives of coastal Andhra, especially ceramic and stone anchors, are available in K. P. Rao (2018) “The Nature of Maritime Trade: The Evidence of from Coastal Andhra”, in Kenneth R. Hall, Rila Mukherjee, and suchandra ghosh (eds.), Subversive Sovereigns Across the Seas: Indian Ocean Port-of-Trade from Early Historic Times to Late Colonialism (Kolkata: The Asiatic Society), 53–66. Rao merely mentions the Motuppalli inscriptions without assessing the relevance of the epigraphic material vis-à-vis the archaeological data.

  52. 52.

    B. N. Mukherjee (1982) “Commerce and Money in the Western and Central Sectors of Eastern India (AD 750–1200)”, Indian Museum Bulletin 16, 65–83; Chakravarti (2007) Trade and Traders, 160–186.

  53. 53.

    B. N. Mukherjee (1993) Media of Exchange in Early Medieval North India (New Delhi: Harman Publishers); J. Heiman (1980) “Small Exchange and Ballast: Cowry Trade and Usage as an Example of Indian Ocean Economic History”, South Asia 3, 48–69; Susmita Basu Majumdar (2014) “Monetary History of Bengal: Issues and Non-Issues”, in D. N. Jha (ed.), The Complex Heritage of Early India, Essays in Memory of R.S. Sharma (New Delhi: Manohar), 585–606; and Susmita Basu Majumdar and Sharmistha Chatterjee (2014) “Cowries in Eastern India: Understanding Their Role as Ritual Objects and Money”, Journal of Bengal Art 19, 39–56. For the Harikela silver currency being based on the coins of the Chandras of Arakan, see Susmita Basu Majumdar (2017) “Metal Money in Southeast Asia: Exploring the Indian Connection”, in Anna Dalapicolla and Anila Verghese (eds.), India and Southeast Asia: Cultural Discourses (Mumbai: K. R. Cama Oriental Institute), 433–458. The relative paucity of coins of precious metal in South Asia during 600–1000 CE has been a major point of debate. For the arguments on the “monetary anaemia”, see R. S. Sharma (1987) Urban Decay in India, C. AD 300–1000 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal); D. N. Jha, ed. (2000) The Feudal Order (New Delhi: Manohar), especially the essay therein by K. M. Shrimali on the cash nexus in the Konkan coast.

  54. 54.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (forthcoming) “Economic Life in Early Bengal”, in A. M. Chowdhury and Ranabir Chakravarti (eds.), History of Bangladesh: Early Bengal in Regional Perspectives, 2 vols. (Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh).

  55. 55.

    Chakravarti (2015) “Indian Trade Through the Jewish Geniza”.

  56. 56.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (1993) “Horse Trade and Piracy at Tana (Thana, Maharashtra, India): Gleanings from Marco Polo”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 34, 152–189; Ranabir Chakravarti (2009) “Equestrian Demands and Dealers: The Early Indian Scenario (Up to c. 1300)”, in Bert G. Fragner, Ralph Kauz, Roderich Ptak, and Angela Schottenhammer (eds.), Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel und Kultur / Horses in Asia: History, Trade and Culture (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften); Chitrarekha Gupta (1983–1984) “Horse Trade in North India: Reflections on the Socio-Economic Life”, Journal of Ancient Indian History 14, 186–206; and Bin Yang (2004) “Horse, Silver and Cowries: Yunnan in Global Perspective”, Journal of World History 15.3, 281–322.

  57. 57.

    William of Adam (2012) How to Defeat the Saracens (Guillelmus Adae Tractus quomodo Sarraceni sunt expugnandi), trans. Giles Constable, annotated by Ranabir Chakravarti; Olivia Remie Constable, Tia Colbaba, and Janet M. Martin (Washington: Dumberton Oaks).

  58. 58.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 27

  59. 59.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 97.

  60. 60.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 99.

  61. 61.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 101

  62. 62.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 101.

  63. 63.

    How to Defeat the Saracens, 101.

  64. 64.

    Ibn Majid’s manual on navigation is available in English translation by G. A. R. Tibbetts (1974) Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean Before the Coming of the Portuguese (London: Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland). The regular visits of Indian merchants, shippers and sailors to Socotra during the first five centuries of the CE are now wonderfully captured by Ingo Strauch (2012) Foreign Sailors to Socotra. Significantly enough, the epigraphic records of these visits clearly show that the island was a place of sojourning for seafarers. It is only in the perception and design of William of Adam that Socotra for the first time looms large as a strategic point in blockading the Gulf of Aden.

  65. 65.

    S. D. Goitein (1980), in his “From Aden to India: Specimens of the Correspondence of India Traders of the Twelfth Century”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 23, 43–66, pointed to the shipping network between al Dyyb (Diu) and Aden on the basis of a twelfth century CE Jewish business letter. S. D. Goitein and Mordechai A. Friedman (in India Traders of the Middle Ages, 316) favour the identification of al Dyyb with Maldives. The preference for Diu as a better identification of al Dyyb is argued for by Ranabir Chakravarti (2012) in How to Defeat the Saracens, 109, footnote 110.

  66. 66.

    Ranabir Chakravarti (2015) “The Indian Ocean Scenario in the Fourteenth Century Latin Crusade Tract: Possibilities of a World Historical Approach”, Asian Review of World History 3.1, 37–58.

  67. 67.

    For a different position see, Roxani Elelni Margariti (2008) “Mercantile Networks, Port Cities and ‘Pirate’ States: Conflicts and Competition in the Indian Ocean World of Trade Before the Sixteenth Century”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51, 543–577.

  68. 68.

    Goitein (1973) Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, 64.

  69. 69.

    For the Sanskrit text of this inscription see Sircar, Select Inscriptions 2, 402–409; the Sanskrit text is more elaborate and the Arabic one is synoptic. Also see B. D. Chattoapdhyaya (1998) Representing the Other? Muslims in Sanskrit Sources (New Delhi: Manohar).

  70. 70.

    Pius Malekandithil (2015) Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean, Rev. ed. (New Delhi: Primus); Pius Malekandithil (2009) “Changing Perceptions of Sea and the Shaping of Urban Space in Medieval Kerala”, in Histories from the Seas (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University), 50–67.

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    Ranabir Chakravarti

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  1. University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria

    Angela Schottenhammer

  2. Research Director of the Indian Ocean World Centre (IOWC), McGill University, Montreal, Canada

    Angela Schottenhammer

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Chakravarti, R. (2019). Indic Mercantile Networks and the Indian Ocean World: A Millennial Overview (c. 500–1500 CE). In: Schottenhammer, A. (eds) Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97667-9_8

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