Abstract
In this chapter secession is considered in the context of self-determination conflicts. This chapter begins with a review of the historical evolution of self-determination. The historical review has demonstrated that, despite its entry into the international legal system, the inherent uncertainty about self-determination remains glaring: the holder and the content of the right to self-determination remain controversial, the territorial perspective and the human rights perspective of self-determination are not always clearly distinguished, tension might arise between the principle of self-determination and the principle of territorial sovereignty, and the right to self-determination is open to abuse particularly in the sense of remedial secession. Therefore, it is clear that a wide gap exists between theory and reality in respect of self-determination, and this gap itself contributes to secessionist self-determination conflicts. For the sake of conflict settlement, it is necessary to close the gap between theory and reality by improving the inadequate legal framework, which should entail the following points: reasonably defining the holder of a right to self-determination, distinguishing the territorial perspective and the human rights perspective of self-determination, correctly understanding the interrelation between territorial sovereignty and self-determination, and preventing abuse of the right to self-determination. When secessionists and non-secessionists can conclude an agreement, all these points can be well-managed, so external actors should make positive contributions to the conclusion of such agreements for the sake of the effective settlement of secessionist conflicts.
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Notes
- 1.
See Chap. 1, Note 34.
- 2.
Declaration of Independence of the United States of America of 4 July 1776.
- 3.
Quoted from Castellino (2000), p. 11.
- 4.
Raič (2002), p. 173.
- 5.
Fabry (2011), p. 255.
- 6.
Franck (1993), p. 5.
- 7.
Nelson (1973), p. 268.
- 8.
Ibid. pp. 268–269.
- 9.
Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Abi-Saab, p. 661, para. 13.
- 10.
Honduras borders (Guatemala, Honduras), II UNRIAA. p. 1322.
- 11.
Klabbers and Lefeber (1993), p. 55.
- 12.
Fabry (2011), p. 252.
- 13.
Ibid. p. 253.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
Doyle (2011), p. 113.
- 16.
Ibid. p. 112.
- 17.
Ibid. p. 115.
- 18.
Koskenniemi (1994), pp. 249–251.
- 19.
Summers (2007), p. 120.
- 20.
Ibid. pp. 121–122.
- 21.
Lenin (1964), p. 451.
- 22.
Lenin (1964), p. 422.
- 23.
Lenin (1964), p. 423.
- 24.
See Chap. 1, Note 15.
- 25.
Lenin (1964), p. 411.
- 26.
Lenin (1964), p. 412.
- 27.
See Chap. 2, Note 54.
- 28.
See Chap. 2, Note 57.
- 29.
UN Doc. E/CH.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1 (1980), para. 108.
- 30.
Duursma (1996), p. 139.
- 31.
Franco-Monegasque Treaty 2002, Article 1, para. 2, http://oxcon.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:ocw/law-ocw-rd99.regGroup.1/law-ocw-rd99, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 32.
Duursma (1996), p. 140.
- 33.
Written Statement of the Republic of Cyprus (2009) requested for the Kosovo Advisory Opinion, para. 77.
- 34.
Christakis (2011), p. 81.
- 35.
Raič (2002), p. 190.
- 36.
Part IV, Section VIII of the Treaty of Versailles was entitled Shantung. In this section there were three Articles (Article 156–Article 158). In these Articles it was provided that all rights, title and privileges acquired by Germany regarding the Province of Shantung—particularly those concerning the territory of Kiaochow, railways, mines and submarine cables would be transferred to Japan within 3 months from the coming into force of the Treaty.
- 37.
Lansing (1921), pp. 97–98.
- 38.
Jennings (1956), pp. 55–56.
- 39.
See Chap. 1, Note 16.
- 40.
Pomerance (1982), p. 6.
- 41.
The Aaland Islands Question: Report of the Committee of Jurists, League of Nations, Official Journal, Special Supp. No. 3 (October 1920), p. 5.
- 42.
Ibid. p. 14.
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
Ibid. p. 5.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
See Chap. 1, Note 17.
- 47.
Raič (2002), pp. 199–200.
- 48.
- 49.
Higgins (2003), p. 24.
- 50.
A/RES/1541(XV), Annex, Principle VI.
- 51.
A/RES/1514(XV), para. 6.
- 52.
A/RES/1541(XV), Annex, Principle IV.
- 53.
Thornberry (1989), p. 874.
- 54.
Reisman (1990), p. 864.
- 55.
AHG/Res. 16(I), http://archive.au.int/collect/auassemb/import/English/FIRST%20ORDINARY_E.pdf, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 56.
Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 567, para. 25.
- 57.
Ibid. pp. 567–568, para. 28.
- 58.
Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Abi-Saab, p. 662, para. 15.
- 59.
Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 567, para. 28.
- 60.
Ibid. para. 27.
- 61.
Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Abi-Saab, p. 663, para. 17.
- 62.
Report of the United Nations Commission for Eritrea, 5 GAOR (1950) Supplement No. 8 (A/1285) para. 176.
- 63.
A/RES/390 (V) A, para. 1.
- 64.
A/RES/1608 (XV), paras. 2 and 4.
- 65.
Case concerning the Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 2 December 1963: I.C. J. Reports 1963, p. 17.
- 66.
Ibid. p. 32.
- 67.
Ibid. p. 33.
- 68.
Higgins (2003), p. 28.
- 69.
Declarations and Reservations, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&clang=_en#EndDec, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 70.
Ibid.
- 71.
Higgins (2003), pp. 29–30.
- 72.
Shaw (1997), p. 479.
- 73.
Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, A/51/18, p. 125, para. 6.
- 74.
Ibid. para. 9.
- 75.
Shaw (2003), pp. 244–245.
- 76.
Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, A/51/18, p. 126, para. 11.
- 77.
See Chap. 2, Note 123.
- 78.
Katangese Peoples’ Congress v. Zaire, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Comm. No. 75/92 (1995), para. 1.
- 79.
Ibid. paras. 4 and 6.
- 80.
Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217, para. 138.
- 81.
Tomuschat (2006), p. 41.
- 82.
See Chap. 1, Note 27.
- 83.
Coggins (2011), p. 34.
- 84.
Kuperman (2008), p. 60.
- 85.
Ibid. p. 61.
- 86.
Ibid. p. 62.
- 87.
Ibid. pp. 65–66.
- 88.
Human Rights Watch, Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo, Executive Summary, http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/kosovo/undword.htm, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 89.
Kuperman (2008), p. 66, Note 41.
- 90.
Aspinall (2011), pp. 459–460.
- 91.
Aspinall and Zain (2013), pp. 87–88 and 94.
- 92.
Aspinall (2011), pp. 460–461.
- 93.
Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement.
- 94.
Aspinall and Zain (2013), p. 90.
- 95.
Amnesty International Public Statement, ASA 21/2976/2015, 30 November 2015.
- 96.
Aspinall and Zain (2013), pp. 90, 94, 103, 123.
- 97.
Aspinall and Zain (2013), p. 94.
- 98.
Aspinall (2008), p. 36.
- 99.
Medvedev, Why I had to recognise Georgia’s breakaway regions, Financial Times 2008-08-26.
- 100.
Jennings (1956), p. 56.
- 101.
Kosovo advisory proceedings, Written Statement by Germany, p. 35; Verbatim Record, 10 December 2009, CR 2009/32, p. 15, para. 28; Written Statement of Switzerland, p. 16, paras. 62–63; Written Statement by Finland, p. 4, para. 9.
- 102.
Kosovo advisory proceedings, Written Statement of the United Kingdom, pp. 9–15; Written Statement by the French Republic, pp. 29–47; Secretary Condoleezza Rice, U.S. Recognizes Kosovo as Independent State, http://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/02/100973.htm, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 103.
See Chap. 1, Note 19.
- 104.
Coggins (2011), p. 30.
- 105.
Higgins (2003), pp. 30–31.
- 106.
Brilmayer (1991), p. 185.
- 107.
Summers (2007), p. 347.
- 108.
Horowitz (2003), p. 70.
- 109.
Brilmayer (1991), pp. 188 and 193.
- 110.
Brilmayer (1991), p. 196.
- 111.
Horowitz (2003), pp. 54–56.
- 112.
Ibid. p. 54.
- 113.
Ibid.
- 114.
See Chap. 1, Note 17.
- 115.
After the independence referendum, Rajoy announced in Madrid that his government would take steps to enact Article 155 of the Spanish Constitution for the first time in Spanish history, thereby suspending Catalan regional autonomy and paving the way for new regional elections, see Cristina Burack, Spanish government threatens to revoke Catalan autonomy, 19.10.2017, http://www.dw.com/en/spanish-government-threatens-to-revoke-catalan-autonomy/a-41027163, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 116.
See Chap. 2, Note 69.
- 117.
Horowitz (2003), p. 61.
- 118.
Lahmann (2009).
- 119.
See Chap. 1, Note 27.
- 120.
Buchanan (2004), p. 288.
- 121.
Orentlicher (2003), p. 25.
- 122.
Cassese (1995), pp. 119–120.
- 123.
Ibid. p. 119.
- 124.
Kohen (2006), pp. 3–4.
- 125.
For instance, the representative of Kenya stated that “although the principle applies to all peoples, even in independent countries, it would be an interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states if the commission drew up rules for the secession of, to use the words of the 1967 United Kingdom proposal, ‘a territory which is geographically distinct and ethnically and culturally diverse from the remainder of the territory of the state administering it’(see UN Doc A/AC.125/SR.107, p. 88, 5 Nov. 1969). The final draft did not contain such open-ended expression, but the representative of India still emphasized that self-determination should not prejudice territorial sovereignty: “the right of self-determination did not apply to sovereign and independent states or to integral parts of their territory or to a section of a people or nation. Without such an understanding, the principle of self-determination would lead to fragmentation, disintegration and dismemberment of sovereign states and members of the United Nations. The danger in that context would be particularly acute in the case of states having multi-racial and multi-lingual populations”. [See Report of the Special Committee on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States, UN Doc. A/8018 (1970), p. 110, para. 219].
- 126.
See Chap. 1, Note 27.
- 127.
UN Doc. E/CH.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1 (1980), para.108.
- 128.
See above Note 30.
- 129.
See Chap. 1, Note 23.
- 130.
- 131.
Thornberry (1993), p. 101.
- 132.
Summers (2013), p. 235.
- 133.
Tomuschat (2006), p. 40.
- 134.
Kohen (2006), pp. 10–11.
- 135.
Cassese (1995), pp. 119–120.
- 136.
Summers (2007), p. 54, Note 182.
- 137.
Raič (2002), p. 313, Note 25.
- 138.
The whole text could be found on the website: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/79573/85699/F1436085708/MMR79573.pdf, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 139.
Ibid.
- 140.
The whole text can be found on http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf, last accessed on 15.06.2018.
- 141.
Ibid.
- 142.
Clapham (2006), pp. 46 and 63.
- 143.
Tomuschat (2006), p. 42.
- 144.
Weller (2008), p. 30.
- 145.
The Independent International Commission on Kosovo thought that “the NATO military intervention was illegal but legitimate”, see The Independent International Commission on Kosovo, The Kosovo Report, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 4. In Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1832 (2011), the Council of Europe has admitted: “military interventions such as those by Turkey in Cyprus in 1974, by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999 and by the Russian Federation in Georgia in 2008, whilst motivated—justifiably or not—by the need to stop serious human rights violations, have themselves led to numerous human rights violations and have not produced lasting solutions for the underlying problems.” See Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1832 (2011): National sovereignty and statehood in contemporary international law: the need for clarification, para. 5.1.
- 146.
Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, UN Doc. A/51/18, p. 126.
- 147.
Janik (2013), p. 54.
- 148.
Ibid. pp. 57–58.
- 149.
See Chap. 1, Note 17.
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Lu, J. (2018). Secession and Self-Determination Conflicts. In: On State Secession from International Law Perspectives. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97448-4_3
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