Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ethnic-Racial Identity Development in Adolescents and Young Adults

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Promoting Health Equity Among Racially and Ethnically Diverse Adolescents

Abstract

This chapter seeks to bridge the gap between the research on ethnic-racial identity development and clinical practice by demonstrating how ethnic-racial identity development may be a salient aspect of individual patient care. We present a general theoretical definition of ethnic-racial identity along with examples of how ethnic-racial identity may be relevant in clinical settings. We highlight the impact of ethnic-racial identity on the adjustment and well-being of adolescents and young adults. We also present an overview of interventions that putatively promote ethnic-racial development. We conclude by providing recommendations on how to best integrate ethnic-racial identity considerations in clinical settings.

D. J. Nguyen was supported by funding from National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH010026) when working on this chapter

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Sussman LK, Robins LN, Earls F. Treatment-seeking for depression by black and white Americans. SSM. 1987;24(3):187–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(87)90046-3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Williams DR, Gonzalez HM, Neighbors H, Nesse R, Abelson JM, Sweetman J, Jackson JS. Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites: results from the National Survey of American life. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007 Mar 1;64(3):305–15. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Rivas-Drake D, Umaña-Taylor AJ, French S, Lee RM, Syed M, Markstrom C, Schwartz SJ. Feeling good, happy, and proud: a meta-analysis of positive ethnic-racial affect and adjustment. Child Dev. 2014;85(1):77–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Erikson EH. Identity: youth and crisis. New York: WW Norton & Company; 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Yazedjian A, Bámaca-Gómez M. Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity. 2004;4(1):9–38. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532706XID0401_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Syed M, Walker LH, Lee RM, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Zamboanga BL, Schwartz SJ, Armenta BE, Huynh QL. A two-factor model of ethnic identity exploration: implications for identity coherence and well-being. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2013;19(2):143. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Phinney JS. Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: review of research. Psychol Bull. 1990;108(3):499. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Phinney JS. The multigroup ethnic identity measure: a new scale for use with diverse groups. J Adolesc Res. 1992;7(2):156–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Cokley K. Critical issues in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity: a referendum on the state of the field. J Couns Psychol. 2007;54(3):224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Quintana SM. Racial and ethnic identity: developmental perspectives and research. J Couns Psychol. 2007;54(3):259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Quintana SM, Lee RM, Cross WE, Rivas-Drake D, Schwartz SJ, Syed M, Yip T, Seaton E. Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: an integrated conceptualization. Child Dev. 2014;85(1):21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Schwartz SJ, Syed M, Yip T, Knight GP, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Rivas-Drake D, Lee RM. Methodological issues in ethnic and racial identity research with ethnic minority populations: theoretical precision, measurement issues, and research designs. Child Dev. 2014;85(1):58–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Lee RM, Yoo HC. Structure and measurement of ethnic identity for Asian American college students. J Couns Psychol. 2004;51(2):263. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.263.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Sellers RM, Smith MA, Shelton JN, Rowley SA, Chavous TM. Multidimensional model of racial identity: a reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personal Soc Psychol Rev. 1998;2(1):18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. French SE, Seidman E, Allen L, Aber JL. The development of ethnic identity during adolescence. Dev Psychol. 2006;42(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Verkuyten M. Further conceptualizing ethnic and racial identity research: the social identity approach and its dynamic model. Child Dev. 2016;87(6):1796–812. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Phinney JS, Devich-Navarro M. Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. J Res Adolesc 1997;7(1):3–2. Available from: Academic Search Premier.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bronfenbrenner U. Ecological systems theory. In Vasta, R, editor. Six theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 1992. p. 187–249.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Guimond AB. A longitudinal examination of parenting behaviors and perceived discrimination predicting Latino adolescents' ethnic identity. J Lat Psychol. 2012;1:14–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/2168-1678.1.S.14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Knight GP, Berkel C, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Gonzales NA, Ettekal I, Jaconis M, Boyd BM. The familial socialization of culturally related values in Mexican American families. J Marriage Fam. 2011;73(5):913–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00856.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Juang L, Syed M. Family cultural socialization practices and ethnic identity in college-going emerging adults. J Adolesc. 2010;33(3):347–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Brown BB, Larson J. Peer relationships in adolescence. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. 2009; https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002004.

  23. Rivas-Drake D, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Schaefer DR, Medina M. Ethnic-racial identity and friendships in early adolescence. Child Dev. 2017;88(3):710–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12790.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Syed M, Juan MJ. Birds of an ethnic feather? Ethnic identity homophily among college-age friends. J Adolesc. 2012;35(6):1505–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Santos CE, Kornienko O, Rivas-Drake D. Peer influence on ethnic-racial identity development: a multi-site investigation. Child Dev. 2017;88(3):725–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12789.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Rivas-Drake D, Hughes D, Way N. A closer look at peer discrimination, ethnic identity, and psychological well-being among urban Chinese American sixth graders. J Youth Adolesc. 2008;37(1):12–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9227-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Greene ML, Way N, Pahl K. Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: patterns and psychological correlates. Dev Psychol. 2006;42(2):218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Yoo H, Lee RM. Ethnic identity and approach-type coping as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian Americans. J Couns Psychol. 2005;52(4):497–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Smith TB, Silva L. Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis. J Couns Psychol. 2011;58(1):42–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Lee RM. Do ethnic identity and other-group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? J Couns Psychol. 2003;50(2):133. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Umaña-Taylor AJ. Ethnic identity and self-esteem: examining the role of social context. J Adolesc. 2004;27(2):139–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Schwartz SJ, Zamboanga BL, Jarvis LH. Ethnic identity and acculturation in Hispanic early adolescents: mediated relationships to academic grades, prosocial behaviors, and externalizing symptoms. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2007;13(4):364. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.4.364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Updegraff KA. Latino adolescents’ mental health: exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. J Adolesc. 2007;30(4):549–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Williams MT, Chapman LK, Wong J, Turkheimer E. The role of ethnic identity in symptoms of anxiety and depression in African Americans. Psychiatry Res. 2012;199(1):31–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.049.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Rivas-Drake D, Hughes D, Way N. Public ethnic regard and perceived socioeconomic stratification: associations with well-being among Dominican and Black American youth. J Early Adolesc. 2009;29(1):122–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608324479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Love AS, Yin Z, Codina E, Zapata JT. Ethnic identity and risky health behaviors in school-age Mexican-American children. Psychol Rep. 2006;98(3):735–44. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.98.3.735-744.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Marsiglia FF, Kulis S, Hecht ML, Sills S. Ethnicity and ethnic identity as predictors of drug norms and drug use among preadolescents in the US southwest. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(7):1061–94. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-120038030.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Kulis SS, Marsiglia FF, Kopak AM, Olmsted ME, Crossman A. Ethnic identity and substance use among Mexican-heritage preadolescents: moderator effects of gender and time in the United States. J Early Adolesc. 2012;32(2):165–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610384484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Marsiglia FF, Kulis S, Hecht ML. Ethnic labels and ethnic identity as predictors of drug use among middle school students in the southwest. J Res Adolesc 2001;11(1):21–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Caldwell CH, Sellers RM, Bernat DH, Zimmerman MA. Racial identity, parental support, and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. Am J Community Psychol. 2004;34(1–2):71–82. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000040147.69287.f7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Altschul I, Oyserman D, Bybee D. Racial-ethnic identity in mid-adolescence: content and change as predictors of academic achievement. Child Dev. 2006;77(5):1155–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00926.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Chang J, Le TN. Multiculturalism as a dimension of school climate: the impact on the academic achievement of Asian American and Hispanic youth. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2010;16(4):485. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020654.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Cokley KO, Chapman C. The roles of ethnic identity, anti-white attitudes, and academic self-concept in African American student achievement. Soc Psychol Educ. 2008;11(4):349–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-008-9060-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Kim SY, Chao RK. Heritage language fluency, ethnic identity, and school effort of immigrant Chinese and Mexico adolescents. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2009;15(1):27. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013052.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Cohen GL, Garcia J, Apfel N, Master A. Reducing the racial achievement gap: a social-psychological intervention. Science. 2006;313(5791):1307–10. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127980.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Chavous TM, Bernat DH, Schmeelk-Cone K, Caldwell CH, Kohn-Wood L, Zimmerman MA. Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents. Child Dev. 2003;74(4):1076–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Perry JC. School engagement among urban youth of color criterion pattern effects of vocational exploration and racial identity. J Career Dev. 2008;34(4):397–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845308316293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Douglass S. Developing an ethnic-racial identity intervention from a developmental perspective: process, content, and implementation of the identity project. In: Cabrera NJ, Leyendecker B, editors. Handbook on positive development of minority children and youth. 1st ed. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Coard SI, Wallace SA, Stevenson HC, Brotman LM. Towards culturally relevant preventive interventions: the consideration of racial socialization in parent training with African American families. J Child Fam Stud. 2004;13(3):277–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Ghavami N, Fingerhut A, Peplau LA, Grant SK, Wittig MA. Testing a model of minority identity achievement, identity affirmation, and psychological well-being among ethnic minority and sexual minority individuals. Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol. 2011;17(1):79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Sleeter CE. The academic and social value of ethnic studies: A research review. Washington D.C: National Education Association Research Department; 2011. p. 1–38. Available from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED521869

    Google Scholar 

  52. Simons L, Blank N, Fehr L, Barnes K, Georganas D, Manapuram G. Another look at the dissemination of the racial identity interaction model in a cultural-based service learning course. In: Hatcher JA, Bringle RG, editors. Understanding service-learning and community engagement: crossing boundaries through research. Charlotte: Information Age Pub; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Bearse C, de Jong EJ. Cultural and linguistic investment: adolescents in a secondary two-way immersion program. Equity Excell Educ. 2008;41(3):325–40. Available from:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10665680802174817

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Thomas O, Davidson W, McAdoo H. An evaluation study of the young empowered sisters (YES!) program: promoting cultural assets among African American adolescent girls through a culturally relevant school-based intervention. J Black Psychol. 2008;34(3):281–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798408314136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Kornienko O, Bayless SD, Updegraff KA. A universal intervention program increases ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution to predict adolescent psychosocial functioning one year later. J Youth Adolesc. 2018;47(1):1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Bettis PJ, Cooks HC, Bergin DA. " It's not steps anymore, but more like shuffling": student perceptions of the civil rights movement and ethnic identity. J Negro Educ. 1994;63(2):197–211. https://doi.org/10.2307/2967383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Aldana A, Rowley SJ, Checkoway B, Richards-Schuster K. Raising ethnic-racial consciousness: the relationship between intergroup dialogues and adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and racism awareness. Equity Excell Educ. 2012;45(1):120–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.641863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Whaley AL, Davis KE. Cultural competence and evidence-based practice in mental health services: a complementary perspective. Am Psychol. 2007;62(6):563–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Newton ES. Bibliotherapy in the development of minority group self concept. J Negro Educ. 1969;38(3):257–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Holman WD. The power of poetry: validating ethnic identity through a bibliotherapeutic intervention with a Puerto Rican adolescent. Child Adolesc Social Work J. 1996;13(5):371–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01875855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Zayas LH. Incorporating struggles with racism and ethnic identity in therapy with adolescents. Clin Soc Work J. 2001;29(4):361–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Rickwood D, Deane FP, Wilson CJ, Ciarrochi J. Young people’s help-seeking for mental health problems. Aust e-J Adv Ment health. 2005;4(3):218–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Clement S, Schauman O, Graham T, Maggioni F, Evans-Lacko S, Bezborodovs N, Morgan C, Rüsch N, Brown JS, Thornicroft G. What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychol Med. 2015;45(1):11–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Prilleltensky I. In: Goldberger NR, Veroff JB, editors. The culture and psychology reader The politics of abnormal psychology: past, present, and future; 1995. p. 652–73.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Carter RT. Racism and psychological and emotional injury: recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. Couns Psychol. 2007 Jan;35(1):13–05.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Hardy KV. Healing the hidden wounds of racial trauma. Reclaiming Child Youth. 2013;22(1):24–8.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Hays PA. Addressing cultural complexities in practice: a framework for clinicians and counselors. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2001.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  68. Green AR, Carney DR, Pallin DJ, Ngo LH, Raymond KL, Iezzoni LI, Banaji MR. Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(9):1231–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Tervalon M, Murray-Garcia J. Cultural humility versus cultural competence: a critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 1998;9(2):117–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Hook JN, Davis DE, Owen J, Worthington EL Jr, Utsey SO. Cultural humility: measuring openness to culturally diverse clients. J Couns Psychol. 2013;60(3):353–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Carter RT, Mazzula S, Victoria R, Vazquez R, Hall S, Smith S, Sant-Barket S, Forsyth J, Bazelais K, Williams B. Initial development of the race-based traumatic stress symptom scale: assessing the emotional impact of racism. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Res, Pract Policy. 2013;5(1):1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Stevenson HC, Arrington EG. Racial/ethnic socialization mediates perceived racism and the racial identity of African American adolescents. Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol. 2009;15(2):125–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Burkard AW, Knox S. Effect of therapist color-blindness on empathy and attributions in cross-cultural counseling. J Couns Psychol. 2004;51:387–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Bibliography

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Melissa M. Vélez, Diem Julie Nguyen & Richard M. Lee

Authors
  1. Melissa M. Vélez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diem Julie Nguyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard M. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melissa M. Vélez .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Program Director, Family Medicine Residency, Vice-Chair, Department of Family Medicine, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Lisa Barkley

  2. Medical Director, Faculty, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Hennepin Healthcare, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Maria Veronica Svetaz

  3. Chief, Section of Adolescent Medicine, Department of General Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA

    Veenod L. Chulani

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Vélez, M.M., Nguyen, D.J., Lee, R.M. (2019). Ethnic-Racial Identity Development in Adolescents and Young Adults. In: Barkley, L., Svetaz, M., Chulani, V. (eds) Promoting Health Equity Among Racially and Ethnically Diverse Adolescents. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97205-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97205-3_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97204-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-97205-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation