Skip to main content

How Are These Devices Manufactured?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Paper-based Diagnostics

Abstract

Paper-based devices are a portable and low-cost technology alternative among conventional analytical tools for point-of-care testing that have been growing in popularity due to their versatility and ease of use. Since their introduction in 2007, different methods to fabricate such devices have been proposed in literature, including photolithography, plotting, inkjet printing, wax printing, and stamping, among other methods, each with its unique advantages and drawbacks. Here, we present the most common current fabrication methods of microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) in two and three dimensions, comparing their processes of fabrication, resolution of the features, and costs associated with their manufacture presenting insights towards the most adequate choice of fabrication method.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Yetisen AK, Akram MS, Lowe CR (2013) Paper-based microfluidic point-of-care diagnostic devices. Lab Chip 13:2210–2251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Cate DM, Adkins JA, Mettakoonpitak J, Henry CS (2015) Recent developments in paper-based microfluidic devices. Anal Chem 87:19–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Xia Y, Si J, Li Z (2016) Fabrication techniques for microfluidic paper-based analytical devices and their applications for biological testing: a review. Biosens Bioelectron 77:774–789

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Carrilho E, Martinez AW, Whitesides GM (2009) Understanding wax printing: a simple micropatterning process for paper-based microfluidics. Anal Chem 81:7091–7095

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Morbioli GG, Mazzu-Nascimento T, Milan LA, Stockton AM, Carrilho E (2017) Improving sample distribution homogeneity in three-dimensional microfluidic paper-based analytical devices by rational device design. Anal Chem 89:4786–4792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Peeling RW, Holmes KK, Mabey D, Ronald A (2006) Rapid tests for sexually transmitted infections (STIs): the way forward. Sex Transm Infect 82(Suppl 5):v1–v6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Martinez AW, Phillips ST, Carrilho E, Thomas SW, Sindi H, Whitesides GM (2008) Simple telemedicine for developing regions: camera phones and paper-based microfluidic devices for real-time, off-site diagnosis. Anal Chem 80:3699–3707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Evans E, Gabriel EFM, Coltro WKT, Garcia CD (2014) Rational selection of substrates to improve color intensity and uniformity on microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Analyst 139:2127–2132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Elizalde E, Urteaga R, Berli CLA (2015) Rational design of capillary-driven flows for paper-based microfluidics. Lab Chip 15:2173–2180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Han SI, Hwang KS, Kwak R, Lee J (2016) Microfluidic paper-based biomolecule preconcentrator based on ion concentration polarization. Lab Chip 16:2219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Wong SY, Cabodi M, Rolland J, Klapperich CM (2014) Evaporative concentration on a paper-based device to concentrate analytes in a biological fluid. Anal Chem 86:11981–11985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Martinez AW, Phillips ST, Whitesides GM (2008) Three-dimensional microfluidic devices fabricated in layered paper and tape. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:19606–19611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Osborn JL, Lutz B, Fu E, Kauffman P, Stevens DY, Yager P (2010) Microfluidics without pumps: reinventing the T-sensor and H-filter in paper networks. Lab Chip 10:2659

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Oh KW, Lee K, Ahn B, Furlani EP (2012) Design of pressure-driven microfluidic networks using electric circuit analogy. Lab Chip 12:515–545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Lewis GG, DiTucci MJ, Baker MS, Phillips ST (2012) High throughput method for prototyping three-dimensional, paper-based microfluidic devices. Lab Chip 12:2630–2633

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Zhu WJ, Feng DQ, Chen M, Chen ZD, Zhu R, Fang HL, Wang W (2014) Bienzyme colorimetric detection of glucose with self-calibration based on tree-shaped paper strip. Sensors Actuators B Chem 190:414–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Lutz B, Liang T, Fu E, Ramachandran S, Kauffman P, Yager P (2013) Dissolvable fluidic time delays for programming multi-step assays in instrument-free paper diagnostics. Lab Chip 13:2840–2847

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Houghtaling J, Liang T, Thiessen G, Fu E (2013) Dissolvable bridges for manipulating fluid volumes in paper networks. Anal Chem 85:11201–11204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Li X, Tian J, Nguyen T, Shen W (2008) Paper-based microfluidic devices by plasma treatment. Anal Chem 80:9131–9134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Schilling KM, Lepore AL, Kurian JA, Martinez AW (2012) Fully enclosed microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Anal Chem 84:1579–1585

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Morbioli GG, Mazzu-Nascimento T, Stockton AM, Carrilho E (2017) Technical aspects and challenges of colorimetric detection with microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs)—a review. Anal Chim Acta 970:1–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Bhakta SA, Borba R, Taba M, Garcia CD, Carrilho E (2014) Determination of nitrite in saliva using microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Anal Chim Acta 809:117–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Liu H, Crooks RM (2011) Three-dimensional paper microfluidic devices assembled using the principles of origami. J Am Chem Soc 133:17564–17566

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Connelly JT, Rolland JP, Whitesides GM (2015) Paper machine for molecular diagnostics. Anal Chem 87:7595–7601

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Schilling KM, Jauregui D, Martinez AW (2013) Paper and toner three-dimensional fluidic devices: programming fluid flow to improve point-of-care diagnostics. Lab Chip 13:628–631

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Martinez AW, Phillips ST, Butte MJ, Whitesides GM (2007) Patterned paper as a platform for inexpensive, low-volume, portable bioassays. Angew Chem Int Ed 46:1318–1320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Li X, Ballerini DR, Shen W (2012) A perspective on paper-based microfluidics: current status and future trends. Biomicrofluidics 6:11301–1130113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Nie J, Zhang Y, Lin L, Zhou C, Li S, Zhang L, Li J (2012) Low-cost fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices by one-step plotting. Anal Chem 84:6331–6335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Lu R, Shi W, Jiang L, Qin J, Lin B (2009) Rapid prototyping of paper-based microfluidics with wax for low-cost, portable bioassay. Electrophoresis 30:1497–1500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Songjaroen T, Dungchai W, Chailapakul O, Laiwattanapaisal W (2011) Novel, simple and low-cost alternative method for fabrication of paper-based microfluidics by wax dipping. Talanta 85:2587–2593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Maejima K, Tomikawa S, Suzuki K, Citterio D (2013) Inkjet printing: an integrated and green chemical approach to microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. RSC Adv 3:9258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Abe K, Suzuki K, Citterio D (2008) Inkjet-printed microfluidic multianalyte chemical sensing paper. Anal Chem 80:6928–6934

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Olkkonen J, Lehtinen K, Erho T (2010) Flexographically printed fluidic structures in paper. Anal Chem 82:10246–10250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Dungchai W, Chailapakul O, Henry CS (2011) A low-cost, simple, and rapid fabrication method for paper-based microfluidics using wax screen-printing. Analyst 136:77–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Chitnis G, Ding Z, Chang C-L, Savran CA, Ziaie B (2011) Laser-treated hydrophobic paper: an inexpensive microfluidic platform. Lab Chip 11:1161–1165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Curto VF, Lopez-Ruiz N, Capitan-Vallvey LF, Palma AJ, Benito-Lopez F, Diamond D (2013) Fast prototyping of paper-based microfluidic devices by contact stamping using indelible ink. RSC Adv 3:18811

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Garcia PDT, Cardoso TMG, Garcia CD, Carrilho E, Coltro WKT (2014) A handheld stamping process to fabricate microfluidic paper-based analytical devices with chemically modified surface for clinical assays. RSC Adv 4:37637–37644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Carrilho E, Phillips ST, Vella SJ, Martinez AW, Whitesides GM (2009) Paper microzone plates. Anal Chem 81:5990–5998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Martinez AW, Phillips ST, Wiley BJ, Gupta M, Whitesides GM (2008) FLASH: a rapid method for prototyping paper-based microfluidic devices. Lab Chip 8:2146–2150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. He Y, Wu Y, Fu JZ, Wu WB (2015) Fabrication of paper-based microfluidic analysis devices: a review. RSC Adv 5:78109–78127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. OuYang L, Wang C, Du F, Zheng T, Liang H (2014) Electrochromatographic separations of multi-component metal complexes on a microfluidic paper-based device with a simplified photolithography. RSC Adv 4:1093

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. He Y, Wu W, Fu J (2015) Rapid fabrication of paper-based microfluidic analytical devices with desktop stereolithography 3D printer. RSC Adv 5:2694–2701

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. He PJW, Katis IN, Eason RW, Sones CL (2015) Laser-based patterning for fluidic devices in nitrocellulose. Biomicrofluidics 9

    Google Scholar 

  44. Wang X (2008) US Patent 8,741,039. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.67.1.82-88.2001

  45. Kumar S, Chauhan VS, Chakrabarti SK (2012) Separation and analysis techniques for bound and unbound alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) in paper: a review. Arab J Chem 9:S1636–S1642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Jaeger CW (2000) How does a solid ink printer work? http://www.imaging.org/ist/resources/tutorials/solid_ink.cfm. Accessed 3 Oct 2015

  47. Jacob JAM (2013) Desenvolvimento de placas de microtitulação em papel. Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa

    Google Scholar 

  48. Morbioli GG (2015) Funcionalização de celulose para ensaios bioanalíticos em dispositivos microfluídicos baseados em papel (μPADs). Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo

    Book  Google Scholar 

  49. Yamada K, Henares TG, Suzuki K, Citterio D (2015) Paper-based inkjet-printed microfluidic analytical devices. Angew Chem Int Ed 54:5294–5310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Sameenoi Y, Nongkai PN, Nouanthavong S, Henry CS, Nacapricha D (2014) One-step polymer screen-printing for microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) fabrication. Analyst 139:6580–6588

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Mazzu-Nascimento T, Morbioli GG, Milan LA, Donofrio FC, Mestriner CA, Carrilho E (2017) Development and statistical assessment of a paper-based immunoassay for detection of tumor markers. Anal Chim Acta 950:156–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Mazzu-Nascimento T, Morbioli GG, Milan LA, Silva DF, Donofrio FC, Mestriner CA, Carrilho E (2017) Improved assessment of accuracy and performance indicators in paper-based ELISA. Anal Methods 9:2644–2653

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Zhang Y, Zhou C, Nie J, Le S, Qin Q, Liu F, Li Y, Li J (2014) Equipment-free quantitative measurement for micro fluidic paper-based analytical devices fabricated using the principles of movable-type printing. Anal Chem 86:2005–2012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Wang W, Wu W-Y, Zhu J-J (2010) Tree-shaped paper strip for semiquantitative colorimetric detection of protein with self-calibration. J Chromatogr A 1217:3896–3899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Jiang Y, Hao Z, He Q, Chen H (2016) A simple method for fabrication of microfluidic paper-based analytical devices and on-device fluid control with a portable corona generator. RSC Adv 6:2888–2894

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Demirel G, Babur E (2014) Vapor-phase deposition of polymers as a simple and versatile technique to generate paper-based microfluidic platforms for bioassay applications. Analyst 139:2326–2331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Bruzewicz DA, Reches M, Whitesides GM (2008) Low-cost printing of poly(dimethylsiloxane) barriers to define microchannels in paper. Anal Chem 80:3387–3392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. He Q, Ma C, Hu X, Chen H (2013) Method for fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices by alkylsilane self-assembling and UV/O3-patterning. Anal Chem 85:1327–1331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Wang J, Monton RN, Zhang X, Filipe CDM, Pelton R, Monton MRN, Zhang X, Filipe CDM, Pelton R, Brennan JD (2014) Hydrophobic sol-gel channel patterning strategies for paper-based microfluidics. Lab Chip 14:691–695

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Rajendra V, Sicard C, Brennan JD, Brook MA (2014) Printing silicone-based hydrophobic barriers on paper for microfluidic assays using low-cost ink jet printers. Analyst 139:6361–6365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Li X, Tian J, Garnier G, Shen W (2010) Fabrication of paper-based microfluidic sensors by printing. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 76:564–570

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Liana DD, Raguse B, Justin Gooding J, Chow E (2012) Recent advances in paper-based sensors. Sensors 12:11505–11526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Fridley GE, Holstein CA, Oza SB, Yager P (2013) The evolution of nitrocellulose as a material for bioassays. MRS Bull 38:326–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Lu Y, Shi W, Qin J, Lin B (2010) Fabrication and characterization of paper-based microfluidics prepared in nitrocellulose membrane by wax printing. Anal Chem 82:329–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Byrnes S, Thiessen G, Fu E (2013) Progress in the development of paper-based diagnostics for low-resource point-of-care settings. Bioanalysis 5:2821–2836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. de Araujo WR, Paixão TRLC (2014) Fabrication of disposable electrochemical devices using silver ink and office paper. Analyst 139:2742–2747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Arena A, Donato N, Saitta G, Bonavita A, Rizzo G, Neri G (2010) Flexible ethanol sensors on glossy paper substrates operating at room temperature. Sensors Actuators B Chem 145:488–494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Murphy A, Gorey B, de Guzman K, Kelly N, Nesterenko EP, Morrin A (2015) Microfluidic paper analytical device for the chromatographic separation of ascorbic acid and dopamine. RSC Adv 5:93162–93169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Yoshihiro K, Hodges S, Cook BS, Zhang C, Abowd GD (2013) Instant inkjet circuits: lab-based inkjet printing to support rapid prototyping of ubicomp devices. Proceedings of the 2013 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive Ubiquitous Computing—UbiComp ’13, p 363–372

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the funding agencies FAPESP (Grant No. 2011/13997-8), CNPq (Grant No. 205453/2014-7) by the scholarships and the financial support to the Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Bioanalítica—INCTBio (FAPESP Grant Nr. 2008/57805-2/CNPq Grant Nr. 573672/2008-3), the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), and the State of Georgia, USA. The authors declare having no competing financial interests.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emanuel Carrilho .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Morbioli, G.G., Mazzu-Nascimento, T., Stockton, A.M., Carrilho, E. (2019). How Are These Devices Manufactured?. In: Land, K. (eds) Paper-based Diagnostics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96870-4_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96870-4_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-96868-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-96870-4

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics