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Notes on the Methodology of Studying the History of the Dhimmis

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Convivencia and Medieval Spain

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Abstract

The objective of this chapter is to point out some considerations that I hope will lead to more accurate results in studying dhimmis. The chapter begins by defining the word dhimma and pinpoints where difficulty arises in trying to place all dhimmis through Islamic history into one category. Then it lists the methodological points; first, the disregarding of the Madhabs under which a particular incident accrued; second, the importance of differentiating between dhimmis and ahlu al-’ahd; third, paying attention to the cultural differences in the Islamic World; fourth, treating an entire community as a single economic entity; fifth, disregarding of the parallel Islamic society of the period and region under study; and sixth, the differentiation between religion and religion driven by politics.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Dhimma means covenant. See: Ibn Manzur, Muhammad b. Makram, Lisan al-’Arab, Beirut: Dar Sadir (1414/1994), XII: 221; al-Fayruz Abadi, Muhammad b. Ya’qub, Al-Qamus al-Muhit, Egypt: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi (1371/1952), IV: 117.

  2. 2.

    There is a clear reference to dhimmis meaning all non-Muslims in a Hadith. The Prophet used to tell leaders of his armies and detachments “… When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, invite them to three courses of action. … If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya.” See: Muslim, Muslim b. al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri, Sahih Muslim, Istanbul: al-Matba’ah al-’Amirah (1334 A.H.), V: 140; Abu Yusuf, Ya’qub b. Ibrahim, Kitab al-Kharaj, Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah (n.d.), p. 128–129; Ibn Salam, Abu ‘Ubayd al-Qasim, Kitab al-Amwal, (ed.) Muhammad Khalil Harras, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-’Ilmiyyah (1406/1986), pp. 29–30. The Zoroastrians being ḏimmis in the sense that they are protected if they pay the jizya is mentioned in the Prophet’s letter to al-Mundhir b. Sawa, the ruler of Hajar or Bahrain. See: Abu Yusuf, p. 129; al-Shafi’i, Muhammad b. Idris, al-Umm, (ed.) Rif’at Fawzi ‘Abdulmuttalib, al-Mansurah, Egypt: Dar al-Wafa’ (1422/2001), V: 406ff.; Ibn Hudaidah, Muhammad b. ‘Ali, al-Misbah al-Mudi fi Kuttab al-Nabi al-Ummi wa-Rusulih Ila Muluk al-Ardh min ‘Arabi wa-A’jami, (ed.) Muhammad ‘Azim al-Din, Beirut: ‘Alam al-Kutub (1405/1985), II: 281; Ibn al-Qayyim, Muhammad b. Abi Bakr, Zad al-Ma’ad fi Hadyi Khair al-’Ibad, (eds.) Shu’ayb al-Arna’ut and ‘Abdulqadir al-Arna’ut, Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risalah (1407/1987), III: 692–693; al-Qastalani, Ahmad b. Muhammad, al-Mawahib al-Ladduniyyah bi-l-Minah al-Muhamadiyyah, (ed.) ‘Imad Zaki al-Barudi, Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tawfiqiyyah (n.d.), I: 546–547; Hamidullah, Muhammad, Majmu’at al-Watha’iq al-Siyasiyyah ll-’Ahd al-Nabawi wa-l-Khilafah al-Rashidah, Beirut: Dar al-Irshad (1389/1969), p. 114. And supporting Hadiths are recorded in most of the Sunnah books, see: Ibn Anas, Malik, al-Muwatta’, Cairo: Jam’iyyat al-Maknaz al-Islami (1421/2000), p. 96; al-San’ani, ‘Abdulrazzaq b. Hammam, al-Musannaf, (ed.) Habib al-Rahman al-A’zami, Karachi: al-Majlis al-’Ilmi (1416/1996), VI: 68; al-Bukhari, Muhammad b. Isma’il, Sahih al-Bukhari, (ed.) Mustafa Dib al-Bugha, Damascus: Dar Ibn Kathir (1410/1990), III: 1151; Abu Dawud, Sulaiman b. al-Ash’ath, Sunan Abi Dawud, Cairo: Dar al-Hadith (1408/1988), III: 165; al-Tirmizi, Muhammad b. ‘Isa, al-Jami’ al-Sahih, (eds.) Ahmad Shakir and Ibrahim ‘Atwah, Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi (1382–1395/1962–1975), IV: 146; Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad b. Muhammad, al-Musnad, (eds.) Ahmad Shakir and Hamzah al-Zain, Cairo: Dar al-Hadith (1416/1995), II: 302–303, 313, 320. And see what was narrated about Salman al-Farisi in Ibn Salam, p. 30. The general opinion among Sunnis is that non-Arabs “al-ʿajam” are considered dhimmis if they pay the jizyah even if they were not Jews or Christians; however, Arabs must be Jews or Christians to be accepted as dhimmis. See Abu Yusuf, p. 58, 122, 128–129; Ibn Salam, p. 35. About the development of the definition, see “Dhimma” EI2.

  3. 3.

    Abu Yusuf, p. 121; and see the section of “fatwas” on the Taghlibis situation in al-Sarakhsi, Muhammad b. Ahmad, al-Nukat, (ed.) Abu al-Wafa’ al-Afghani, Hyderabad: Lajnat Ihya’ al-Ma’arif al-Nu’maniyyah (1378 A.H.), pp. 112–129.

  4. 4.

    Al-San’ani, VI: 72.

  5. 5.

    Op. cit., 73f.

  6. 6.

    A “fatwā” is an opinion on a point of Islamic Law. The “muftī” is the person who gives the opinion based on Islamic texts.

  7. 7.

    Ibn al-Qayyim, Muhammad b. Abi Bakr, Ahkam Ahl al-Dhimmah, (ed.) Subhi al-Salih, Beirut: Dar al-’Ilm lil-Malayin (1983), I: 92. On the other hand, the diversity of opinion between Abu Hanifah and his disciples Abu Yusuf and al-Shaybani concerning the Sabians was due to the question in the fatwa itself. Abu Hanifah prohibited marriages between Muslims and Sabians because he had been asked about those of Harran who worshiped the planets. However, his disciples allowed them because they were asked about those in Iraq who are considered a sect of Christians. See: al-Qifti, ‘Ali b. Yusuf, Ikhbar al-’Ulama’ bi-Akhbar al-Hukama’, Egypt: Matba’at al-Sa’adah (1326/1908), p. 204. And further explanation of the differences in the Hanafis view in al-Jassas, Ahmad b. ‘Ali, Ahkam al-Qur’an, (ed.) Sidqi Jamil, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr (1421/2001), III: 135.

  8. 8.

    Al-Qirqisani, Ya’qub, Kitab al-Anwar wa-l-Maraqib (Code of Karaite Law), (ed.) Leon Nemoy, New York: The Alexander Kohut Memorial Foundation (1939–1943), p. 326 (III. 20.8), p. 676 (VI. 43.3); Maimonides, Moses, The Guide of the Perplexed, (trans.) Shlomo Pines, Chicago: University of Chicago (1984), II: 39, III: 29.

  9. 9.

    Their book is called Kanz Arba. It’s divided into two sections on the right and the left sides. It contains a strong prohibition against worshipping stars “whenever one of them (Sabian women) present a sacrifice at the idols’ temples, or kneels before an astrologer, their fathers’ souls will be asked about their [actions]. So how would you disclaim your misdeeds?” Kanz Arba, (trans.) Yusuf Maty Quzy and Sabih al-Shiri, Baghdad: n. p. (2001), XVII: 1. For more on them, see: “Ṣābiʾa” EI2.

  10. 10.

    Al-Qurtubi, Yusuf b. Abdullah, al-Kafi fi Fiqh Ahl al-Madinah al-Maliki, (ed.) Muhammad Walad Madik, n. p. (1399/1979), I: 413.

  11. 11.

    Al-Shafi’i, v: 410; Al-Nawawi, Yahya b. Sharaf, al-Majmu’ Sharh al-Muhazzab lil-Shirazi, (ed.) Muhammad al-Muti’I, Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-’Arabi (1422/2001), xxi: 190.

  12. 12.

    Ibn Hazm, ‘Ali b. Ahmad, Al-Muhalla, Egypt: Idarat al-Tiba’ah al-Muniriyyah (1349–1352 A.H.), VII: 347–349, 345.

  13. 13.

    Al-Tamimi, al-Nu’man b. Muhammad, Da’a’im al-Islam wa-Zikr al-Halal wa-l-Haram wa-l-Qadhaya wa-l-Ahkam ‘an Ahl Bayt Rasul Allah ‘Alayh wa-’Alayhim Afdhal al-Salam, (ed.) ‘Arif Tamir, Beirut: Dar al-Adhwa’ (1416/1995), I: 446–447.

  14. 14.

    Ibn Hisham, ‘Abdulmalik, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, (eds.) Mustafa al-Saqqa, et. al., Cairo: Mustafa al-Halabi (1375/1955), IV: 548; Ibn Salam, p. 25; Al-Tabari, Muhammad b. Jarir, Jami’ al-Bayan fi Ta’wil Ay al-Qur’an, Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi (1373/1954), X: 109; Ibn Kathir, Isma’il b. ‘Umar, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-’Azim, Cairo: Dar Ihya’ al-Kutub al-’Arabiyyah (n.d.). II: 347; Ibn Al-Qayyim, Ahkam, I: 6; Al-Suyuti, Abdulrahman b. Abi Bakr, al-Durr al-Manthur fi al-Tafsir bil-Ma’thur, (eds.) Abdullah al-Turki and ‘Abdulsanad Yamamah, Cairo: Markaz Hajar (1424/2003), VII: 311–312.

  15. 15.

    In Al-Balqa’, in Jordan, near al-Sarat mountains from the Hijaz side. Al-Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, II: 118.

  16. 16.

    In Al-Balqa’ region, near Al-Garba’. Al-Hamawi, op. cit., I: 129.

  17. 17.

    Near the previously mentioned Aylah. Al-Hamawi, op. cit., V: 178.

  18. 18.

    Ibn Hisham, IV: 525–526, 589, III: 1027, 1030–1032; Ibn Sa’d, Muhammad, al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, Beirut: Dar Sadir (1418/1998), II: 166; Al-Kila’i, Sulayman b. Musa, al-Iktifa’ fi Maghazi Rasul Allah wa-l-Thalathat al-Khulafa’, (ed.) Mustafa Abdulwahid, Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanji (1387–1389/1968–1970), II: 385–386; Ibn Sayyid Al-Nas, Muhammad b. Muhammad, ‘Uyun al-Athar fi Funun al-Maghazi wa-l-Shama’il wa-l-Siyar, (eds.) Muhammad al-Khatrawi and Muhiy al-Din Mistu, Medinah: Maktabat Dar al-Turath (1413/1993), II: 297, 352, 358.

  19. 19.

    Al-Shafi’i, V: 503; Ibn Zanjawih, Humaid b. Mukhlid, al-Amwal, (ed.) Shakir Fayyadh, Riyadh: Markaz al-Malik Faisal lil-Buhuth wa-l-Dirasat al-Islamiyyah (1406/1986), II: 466; al-Jassas, II: 610–611.

  20. 20.

    Goitein, S. D., “Jewish Society and Institutions Under Islam,” in Jewish Society Through the Ages, (eds.) Haim H. Ben-Sasson and S. Ettinger, New York: Schocken Books (1971), p. 172.

  21. 21.

    Al-Jahiz, ‘Amr b. Bahr, al-Qawl fi al-Bighal, (ed.) Charles Pellat, Egypt: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi (1375/1955), p. 17ff.

  22. 22.

    For example, al-Khazraji, ‘Ali b. al-Hasan, al-’Uqud al-Lu’lu’iyyah fi Tarikh al-Dawlah al-Rasuliyyah, (ed.) Mahmud Basyuni ‘Asal, Egypt: Matba’at al-Hilal (1329–1332/1911–1914), I: 57, 66, 425, II: 50, 185.

  23. 23.

    For example, al-Maqrizi, Ahmad b. ‘Ali, al-Suluk li-Ma’rifat Duwal al-Muluk, (eds.) Muhammad Ziyadah and Sa’id ‘Ashur, Egypt: Lajnat al-Ta’lif wa-l-Tarjamah wa-l-Nashr, Dar al-Kutub (1376–1403/1956–1983), II/b: 444 (the judge of Damascus); Ibn al-Athir, ‘Ali b. Muhammad, al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, Lugduni Batavorum: E. J. Brill (1851), IX: 648 (the Abbasid Caliph al-Qaʾim) who in his reign (1031–1075 C.E.) renewed the pact of Omar I; al-Safadi, Khalil b. Aybak, A’yan al-’Asr wa-A’wan al-Nasr, (eds.) ‘Ali Abu Zayd et. al., Beirut: Dar al-Fikr al-Mu’asir (1418/1998), II: 675 (the chief judge of Damascus) refused to ride a mule like the other judges as a sign of asceticism.

  24. 24.

    Al-Hasan b. Yasar al-Basri (d.728 C.E.). A well-known religious scholar, was born in Medinah, and lived later in al-Basrah in Iraq. See: Ibn Sa’d, VII: 156; al-Hamawi, Yaqut, Mu’jam al-Udaba’, (ed.) Ihsan ‘Abbas, Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami (1993), III: 1023.

  25. 25.

    Ibn al-Qayyim, Muhammad b. Abi Bakr, al-Da’ wal-Dawa’, (eds.) Muhammad al-Islahi and Za’id al-Nashiri, n. p.: Dar ‘Alam al-Fawa’id (n.d.), I: 146; Ibn Rajab, Abdulrahman b. Ahmad, al-Zayl ‘ala Tabaqat al-Hanabilah, (ed.) Abdulrahman al-”Uthaymin, Riyadh: Maktabat al-’Ubaykan (1425/2005), I: 74.

  26. 26.

    See for example: Al-’Urainy, al-Saiyyd al-Baz, Al-Mamalik, Beirut: Dar al-Nahdhah al-’Arabiyyah (n.d), p. 159 ff. for the military spending on soldiers in the Mamluk State, in which such regulation was enforced twice.

  27. 27.

    A famous valley in Yemen, then a city, was built in the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun’s reign. Its name was al-Ḫuṣayb and it later came to be known by the valley’s name. See al-Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, III: 131.

  28. 28.

    Al-Hakami, ‘Amarah b. ‘Ali, Tarikh al-Yaman, (ed.) Hasan Sulaiman Mahmud, San’a: Maktabat al-Irshad (1425/2004), p. 150.

  29. 29.

    Ibn Shaddad, Yusuf b. Rafi’, al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyyah wal-Mahasin al-Yusufiyyah, (ed.) Jamal al-Din al-Shayyal, Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanji (1415/1994), pp. 87–88; Ibn Khillikan, I: 306.

  30. 30.

    Al-Hakami, p. 149.

  31. 31.

    The Sulayhids: An Isma’ili dynasty ruled in the name of the Fatimids over much of the Southern highlands and the Tihamah region of Yemen (1047–1138 C.E.). For more information see: “Ṣulayḥids,” EI2.

  32. 32.

    Al-Hakami, 149.

  33. 33.

    A city in Yemen overlooking the Saham Valley, built around the year 1010 C.E. See: al-Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, IV: 441.

  34. 34.

    Al-Hakami, pp. 149–150.

  35. 35.

    Ibn Khillikan, Ahmad b. Muhammad, Wafayat al-A’yan wa-Anba’ Abna’ al-Zaman, (ed.) Ihsan ‘Abbas, Beirut: Dar Sadir (n.d.), I: 306; al-’Arshi, Husain b. Ahmad, Bulugh al-Maram fi Sharh Misk al-Khitam fi man Tawalla Mulk al-Yaman min Malik wa-Imam, (ed.) Anistas Mari al-Kirmili, Cairo: Maktabat Luwis Sarkis (1939), p. 17.

  36. 36.

    Al-Hakami, p. 151; al-Zahabi, Muhammad b. Ahmad, Siyar A’lam al-Nubala’, (eds.) Shu’aib al-Arna’ut and Muhammad al-’Irqsusi, Beirut: Mu’ssasat al-Risalah (1417/1996), XX: 583; al-Safadi, Khalil b. Aybak, al-Wafi bil-Wafayat, (eds.) Hellmut Ritter, et. al., Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag (1381–1429/1962–2008), XIX: 246; Ibn al-’Imad, Abdulhai b. Ahmad, Shazarat al-Dhahab fi Akhbar man Zahab, (eds.) Abdulqadir al-Arna’ut and Muhammad al-Arna’ut, Damascus: Dar Ibn Kathir (1411/1991), VI: 386.

  37. 37.

    Al-Hakami, p. 155; al-Zahabi, Siyar, XX: 322; al-Ja’di, ‘Umar b. ‘Ali, Tabaqat Fuqaha’ al-Yaman, (ed.) Fu’ad Sayyid, Beirut: Dar al-Qalam (n.d), p. 184; al-Asbahani, Muhammad b. Muhammad, Kharidat al-Qasr wa-Jaridat al-’Asr (Qism Shu’ara’ Bilad al-Sham), (ed.) Shukri Faisal, Damascus: Al-Majma’ al-’Ilmi al-’Arabi (1378/1959), IV: 64–65; al-Qalqashandi, V: 29.

  38. 38.

    Al-Yami al-Hamazani, Muhammad b. Hatim, al-Samt al-Ghali al-Thaman fi Akhbar al-Muluk mina al-Ghuzz bi’l-Yaman, (ed.) Rex Smith, London: Luzac (1974), p. 16.

  39. 39.

    Al-Ja’di, p. 211; al-Yafi’i, III: 393; al-Yami al-Hamazani, p. 16.

  40. 40.

    In his letter to the Jews of Marseilles in 1194 C.E., Maimonides mentioned that the persecution in Yemen had occurred 22 years earlier. See Stitskin, Leon D. (ed. & trans.), Letters of Maimonides, New York: Yeshiva University Press (1977), pp. 118, 128.

  41. 41.

    Bat Zion, Eraqi Klorman, “The Yemeni Messiah in the Time of Maimonides: Prelude for future messiahs,” in From Iberia to Diaspora, (eds.) Yedida Stillman and Norman Stillman, Leiden: E. J. Brill (1999), pp. 132, 136.

  42. 42.

    Stitskin, p. 128.

  43. 43.

    Ibid.

  44. 44.

    Al-Hakami, pp. 153, 155–156; Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi, Yusuf b. Qaza’ughli, Mir’at al-Zaman fi Tawarikh al-A’yan, (eds.) Muhammad Barakat et. al., Damascus: Al-Risalah al-’Alamiyyah (1434/2013), XXI: 195; al-Dayba’ al-Zabidi, Abdulrahman b. ‘Ali, Bughyat al-Mustafid fi Tarikh Madinat Zabid, (ed.) Abdullah Habashi, San’a: Maktabat al-Irshad (1427/2006), p. 63. Many other sources reported similar narratives.

  45. 45.

    Al-Baghdadi, Ahmad b. ‘Ali, Tarikh Baghdad, (ed.) Bashshar Ma’ruf, Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami (1422/2001), VIII: 208; Anonymous, Kitab al-Hawadith, (eds.) Bashshar Ma’ruf and ‘Imad Ra’uf, Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami (1997), p. 97; Ibn al-Qayyim, Ahkam, I: 92–93.

  46. 46.

    Abu Sa’id al-Hasan b. Ahmad b. Yazid al-Iṣtakhri (d. 940 C.E.). See, al-Baghdadi, VIII: 208; Ibn Khillikan, II: 74; al-Zahabi, Siyar, XV: 250.

  47. 47.

    Al-Umm, V: 435; al-Nawawi, al-Majmu’, XVII: 230.

  48. 48.

    Al-Baghdadi, XIII: 81.

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    Torki Fahad A. Al-Saud

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Al-Saud, T.F.A. (2019). Notes on the Methodology of Studying the History of the Dhimmis. In: Abate, M.T. (eds) Convivencia and Medieval Spain. Mediterranean Perspectives. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96481-2_4

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