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Planners: The Two Undersecretaries, Mamoru Shigemitsu and Fulvio Suvich

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Japan, Italy and the Road to the Tripartite Alliance

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Abstract

This chapter deals with the aides of Hirota and Mussolini, Mamoru Shigemitsu (1933–1936) and Fulvio Suvich (1932–1936), undersecretaries for foreign affairs. Both placed importance on upholding the relationships with the great powers, especially Britain, yet they also believed that their states must establish regional hegemony in East Asia and Central Europe, respectively In addition to their imperialistic orientation, they had a distaste for socialism and democracy, which led to interference in the affairs of China and Austria. Their initiatives to carry out financial and political plans failed in the long run, but the inclination to establish dominance in their regions was passed on to their successors, who pursued this goal in a more aggressive manner in the late 1930s.

The original version of this chapter was revised: Belated corrections have been incorporated. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96223-8_9

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Yasuhiko Morishima, Showa no Doran to Morishima Goro no Shogai (Fukuoka: Ashi Shobo, 1985), p. 74. Ishii Itaro Nikki (hereafter Ishii Nikki), ed. Takashi Ito and Liu Jie (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1993), pp. 18–20. Fulvio Suvich, Memorie, 1932–1936, a cura di Gianfranco Bianchi (Milano: Rizzoli, 1984), pp. 5–6, 12.

  2. 2.

    Mamoru Shigemitsu, Showa no Doran, Vol. 1 (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1952), pp. 30–35, 43–44, 85–92.

  3. 3.

    Suvich, op. cit., pp. 264–284.

  4. 4.

    Tomoki Takeda, Shigemitsu Mamoru to Sengo Seiji (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2002), pp. 76–77, 87, 90. Ian Nish, “Shigemitsu and the Shanghai Crisis, 1932,” in Shigemitsu Studies, ed. Ian Nish (London: STICERD, 1990), pp. 85, 92–93.

  5. 5.

    The spelling of Chinese names will follow those used in Western documents of the 1930s. Katsumi Usui, Nicchu Gaiko-shi Kenkyu (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1999), p. 126.

  6. 6.

    Suvich, op. cit., p. 4. The National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA), FO371/20418, R1724/458/22 (21/3/1936). TNA, FO371/15151, C5237/61/3 (7/7/1931).

  7. 7.

    TNA, FO371/20418, R1724/458/22 (21/3/1936).

  8. 8.

    Tetsuya Sakai, “‘Eibei Kyocho’ to ‘Nicchu Teikei’,” in Nempo Kindai Nihon Kenkyu, No. 11: Kyocho Seisaku no Genkai (Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha, 1989), pp. 64, 79, 81.

  9. 9.

    Ryuji Hattori, “Shigemitsu Chuka Koshi Hokokusho,” Gunji Shigaku, Vol. 37, Nos. 2–3 (2001), 247–258.

  10. 10.

    Tetsuya Sakai, Taisho Democracy Taisei no Hokai: Naisei to Gaiko (hereafter Sakai, Taisho Democracy) (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1992), p. 52. Japanese Foreign Ministry Archives, Tokyo (hereafter JFMA), A. 1. 1. 0. 10, Vol. 3.

  11. 11.

    Daiki Sairenji, “Minzoku Jiketsu Shugi to Nihon no Ajia niokeru Chii: Manshu Jihen Zengo no Shigemitsu Mamoru no Tai-Chugoku Seisaku Koso wo Chushin ni,” Hogaku Seijigaku Ronkyu, Vol. 42 (1999), 185–210, 189.

  12. 12.

    TNA, FO371/15153, C7258/61/3 (23/9/1931); C7395/61/3 (25/9/1931). TNA, FO371/15888, C1255/68/3 (8/2/1932).

  13. 13.

    Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Roma (hereafter ASMAE), Carte Suvich, B33, F 1932, SF Relazione Sessione del Comitato Finanziario, Relazione di Suvich (3-21/3/1932). Pompeo Aloisi , the Italian chief delegate to the League, also felt it “intolerable that so many small Powers exercised an influence equal to that of the Great Powers.” TNA, FO371/17395, W13673/13308/98 (21/11/1933).

  14. 14.

    Whereas the 1923 loan to Austria was guaranteed in the following proportions: France, Britain and Czechoslovakia 23% each, Italy 19%, Spain 4%, etc., the planned issues in 1932 were: Britain 42%, the United States 25%, Czechoslovakia 10%, France 7%, Italy 6%, Spain 4%, etc. TNA, T188/45, Letter from Leith-Ross to Selby (6/5/1932). Il processo Roatta (Roma: Donatello De Luigi, 1945), p. 18.

  15. 15.

    Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939 (hereafter DBFP), 2-II (London: HMSO, 1947), No. 59. TNA, FO371/15151, C4450/61/3 (24/6/1931).

  16. 16.

    Stephen Lyon Endicott, Diplomacy and Enterprise: British China Policy 1933–1937 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), p. 103. TNA, T188, Index. Sir Frederick Leith-Ross, Money Talks: Fifty Years of International Finance (London: Hutchinson, 1968), pp. 145–146, 224.

  17. 17.

    TNA, T188/46, Guaranteed Loans for Central Europe (n. n., n. d.). TNA, T188/60 S.D. Waley to Leith-Ross (1/3/1932).

  18. 18.

    TNA, T188/45, Letter from Leith-Ross to Selby (6/5/1932); Program for Mixed Committee (27/5/1932). The British tranche of loans was conditioned to repay the debt for British credit. Notwithstanding the fact that Austria was forced to lower trade barriers, Britain itself imposed heavy tariffs. Ibid., Letter from Leith-Ross to Selby (6/5/1932); Letter from Niemeyer to Hopkins (28/5/1932).

  19. 19.

    TNA, T188/60, Letter to Fergusson (22/6/1933). TNA, FO371/16641, C5433/2092/3 (13/6/1933).

  20. 20.

    Ibid., C5257/2092/3 (12/6/1933). This did not mean the British Foreign Office had a good understanding with Japan. The Permanent Undersecretary for Foreign Affairs, Sir Robert Vansittart , commented on Japan as “a wholly unfit member of the League,” having a “fine natural savagery.” TNA, FO371/17073, F74/33/10 (23/12/1932), Minute by Vansittart (1/1/1933).

  21. 21.

    TNA, T188/45, Letter from Leith-Ross to the Chancellor of Exchequer (30/3/1932). TNA, T188/60, C. P. 280 (32) (August 1932). TNA, FO371/16641, C4748/2092/3 (25/5/1933); C5257/2092/3 (12/6/1933).

  22. 22.

    Hideo Kobayashi, “Heisei Kaikaku womeguru Nihon to Chugoku,” in Chugoku no Heisei Kaikaku to Kokusai Kankei, ed. Yutaka Nozawa (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1981), pp. 239, 246. Kazuhiko Tomizuka, “1933, 4nen niokeru Shigemitsu Gaimu Jikan no Tai-Chugoku Gaiko Rosen: ‘Amau Seimei’ no Kosatsu wo Chushin ni,” Gaiko Shiryo Kampo, Vol. 13 (1999), 67.

  23. 23.

    Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 47. Ryuji Hattori, Higashi-Ajia Kokusai Kankyo no Hendo to Nihon Gaiko (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 2001), pp. 265–267.

  24. 24.

    Toshio Iyotani, “Amerika no Tai-Ka Membaku Shakkan to Nihon,” in Ryo-Taisen Kanki no Ajia to Nihon, ed. Kazuichiro Ono and Susumu Yoshinobu (Tokyo: Otsuki Shoten, 1979), pp. 101, 110–111. Taichiro Mitani, “Kokusai Kin’yu Shihon to Ajia no Senso,” in Nempo Kindai Nihon Kenkyu, No. 2: Kindai Nihon to Ajia (Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha, 1980), p. 149. Masataka Matsuura, “Saiko Nicchu Senso Zenya: Chugoku Heisei Kaikaku to Kodama Hochudan wo Megutte,”(hereafter “Kodama”) Kokusaiseiji, No. 122 (1999), 137. Tomizuka, op. cit., p. 67. Usui, op. cit., p. 128. JFMA, E. 1. 6. 0. X. 9.

  25. 25.

    Shimada, op. cit., pp. 83–85. Manabu Hamaguchi, “‘Tairiku’ niokeru Raihiman to Mone,” Gaiko Shiryo Kampo, Vol. 12 (1998), 89. Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 94. Rajchman was also hated as a Polish Jew by the German minister (later ambassador) to China, Oskar P. Trautmann . Politisches Archiv, Auswärtigen Amt (hereafter PAAA), R31231, Abschrift s. n. (24/8/1933). The elimination of Rajchman was considered desirable due to his “anti-German” activities. PAAA, R85843, Fa 578 (Mai 1934).

  26. 26.

    Hamaguchi, op. cit., pp. 92–92. JFMA, B. 9. 7. 0. 8. TNA, FO371/18098, F3011/107/10 (17/5/1934). Takeda, op. cit., p. 101. Noriyuki Ishijima, “Chugoku no Taigai Kankei to Keizaikensetsu,” in Nozawa, op. cit., pp. 30–31, 35. The Chinese government intended to sell 80% of the American raw cotton to Japanese factories in China. Yet, because of the Japanese boycott, the American government was asked to cancel thirty million dollars of the loan. Ibid., p. 33.

  27. 27.

    JFMA, A. 1. 1. 0. 10, Vol. 3, Telegr. No. 109 (13/4/1934). The quotation is from an English translation of the telegram in Shimada, op. cit., p. 82.

  28. 28.

    Shin’ichi Kamimura, Nihon Gaiko-shi, Vol. 19: Nikka Jihen (Tokyo: Kajima Kenkyu-jo Shuppankai, 1971), pp. 84–88.

  29. 29.

    Minister (later ambassador) to China Ariyoshi warned that a person such as Wang Ching-wei , who had no connection with the Chekian financial combine, could not bar the attempts to raise foreign loans, which would favor the pro-Euro-American clique. Matsuura, “Kodama,” 137.

  30. 30.

    Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 12–14, 32–33.

  31. 31.

    Saireiji, op. cit., p. 189.

  32. 32.

    Tomizuka, op. cit., p. 67.

  33. 33.

    Tomoko Masuda, “Saito Makoto Kyokokuicchi Naikakuron,” in Shirizu Nihon Kingendaisi, Vol. 3: Gendai Shakai no Tenkei (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1993), p. 256. In December 1935, Shigemitsu refused the abolition of unequal treaties with China on the grounds that abolition would severely harm the “internal atmosphere” in Japan. Toshikazu Inoue, Kiki nonakano Kyocho Gaiko: Nicchu Senso niitaru Taigaiseisaku no Keisei to Tenkai (Tokyo: Yamawaka Shuppansha, 1994), p. 290.

  34. 34.

    Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 44, 50, 90, 94, 132.

  35. 35.

    Ishijima, op. cit., pp. 29, 39, 44.

  36. 36.

    TNA, FO371/18345, R782/37/3 (7/2/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1398/1287/3 (19/2/1934).

  37. 37.

    Ibid., R1541/1287/3 (3/3/1934). ASMAE, Carte Suvich, B33, F 1933, SF Relazioni commerciali Austria-Ungheria, Appunto relativo al trattamento preferenziale alle merci austriache (6/12/1932).

  38. 38.

    Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 1: Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Torino: Einaudi, 1974), pp. 455–457.

  39. 39.

    Benito Mussolini, Opera omnia di Benito Mussolini (hereafter O. O.), a cura di Edoardo e Duilio Susmel, Vol. XXV (Firenze: La Fenice, 1958), pp. 148, 200. Suvich was sometimes simply classified as anti-German, a priori. MacGregor Knox, Common Destiny: Dictatorship, Foreign Policy, and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 137. R.J.B. Bosworth, Mussolini (London: Arnold, 2002), p. 271.

  40. 40.

    TNA, FO371/16641, C5520/2092/3 (16/3/1933). MacGregor Knox, “Expansionist Zeal, Fighting Power, and Staying Power in the Italian and German Dictatorships,” in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, ed. Richard Bessel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 119–123. Suvich, op. cit., p. 182. Suvich attended the World Economic Conference and, according to Ambassador to Britain Dino Grandi , enjoyed being held in high regard there. Paolo Nello, Dino Grandi: La formazione di un leader fascista (Bologna: Mulino, 1987), p. 229.

  41. 41.

    ASMAE, Serie Affari Politici 1931–1945 (hereafter AP), Austria, B27, F3, Necessità di un progetto italiano per la ricostruzione dell’Europa danubiana (Settembre 1933).

  42. 42.

    Ibid., Telesp. N. 2332/359 (23/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18350, R1538/37/3 (8/3/1934). Tomaso De Vergottini, “Fulvio Suvich e la difesa dell’indipendenza austriaca,” in Le fonti diplomatiche in età moderna e contemporanea: Atti del Convegno internazionale Lucca, 20–25 gennaio 1989 (Roma: Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Ufficio Centrale per i Beni Archivistici, 1995), p. 410.

  43. 43.

    TNA, FO371/18345, R693/37/3 (29/1/1934). Rosaria Quartararo, Roma tra Londra e Berlino: La politica estera fascista dal 1930 al 1940 (Roma: Bonacci, 1980), p. 75.

  44. 44.

    Österreichsches Staatsarchiv, Neue Politische Archiv, Wien, K84, No. 16/pol (1934/2/15). DBFP, 2-VI, Nos. 205, 222. TNA, FO371/18345, R782/37/3 (7/2/1934); FO371/18363, R1541/1287/3 (3/3/1934).

  45. 45.

    Akten zur Deutschen Auswärtigen Politik (hereafter ADAP), C-II (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973), Nr. 126.

  46. 46.

    TNA, FO371/18345, R629/37/3 (25/1/1934).

  47. 47.

    Ibid., R560/37/3 (23/1/1934); FO371/18350, R1468/37/3 (5/3/1934); R1601/37/3 (14/3/1934); R1615/37/3 (10/3/1934).

  48. 48.

    Ibid. Suvich, op. cit., p. 274.

  49. 49.

    TNA, FO371/18350, R1435/37/3 (2/3/1934). ADAP, C-II, Nr. 225.

  50. 50.

    TNA, FO371/16641, C5257/2092/3 (12/6/1933). Robert Dell, “Vansittart, Europe’s Arbiter,” Nation, 24 July 1937.

  51. 51.

    TNA, FO371/18350, R1538/37/3 (8/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1541/1287/3 (3/3/1934). The Heimwehr had at one point been reported to be bankrupt and split by feuds, but now, it became a major protector of Dollfuß and the independence of Austria. TNA, FO371/15888, C4469/68/3 (30/5/1932); FO371/18350, R1629/37/3 (10/3/1934). De Vergottini, op. cit., p. 410.

  52. 52.

    ASMAE, Carte Suvich, B42, F 1934, SF Austria varie, Lettera da dott. Riccardo Luzzatto a Suvich (7/8/1934). TNA, FO371/18350, R1615/37/3 (10/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18352, R3436/37/3 (14/6/1934); R3603/37/3 (26/6/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1539/1287/3 (27/2/1934).

  53. 53.

    DBFP, 2-VI, No. 222. Endicott, op. cit., pp. 35–37. TNA, FO371/18350, R1468/37/3 (5/3/1934).

  54. 54.

    Kazuto Yamamoto, Sengo Sekai Boeki Chitsujo no Keisei: Ei-bei no Kyocho to Kakuchiku (Kyoto: Minerva Shobo, 1999), pp. 35–44. Leith-Ross, op. cit., pp. 187–191. TNA, T188/81, Minutes of First Meeting (19/9/1934); Minutes of Seventh Meeting (24/9/1934). The British report itself admitted: “He did not mention this as a threat, but as an obvious logical conclusion.” Ibid., Fifth Conference (24/9/1934).

  55. 55.

    TNA, FO371/20275, F2840/2840/10 (14/4/1936).

  56. 56.

    TNA, T188/81, Minutes of the Fourth Meeting (21/9/1934). Antony Best, “Economic Appeasement or Economic Nationalism? A Political Perspective on the British Empire, Japan, and the Rise of Intra-Asian Trade, 1933–37,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol. 30, No. 2 (2002), 80–84.

  57. 57.

    Leith-Ross, op. cit., p.195.

  58. 58.

    TNA, FO371/15485, F304/304/10 (10/1/1931).

  59. 59.

    DBFP, 2-XX, No. 106.

  60. 60.

    Osamu Ishii, Sekai Kyoko to Nihon no ‘Keizai Gaiko’ (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, 1995), p. 21.

  61. 61.

    DBFP, 2-XIII, No. 22; 2-XX, Nos. 202, 220.

  62. 62.

    Ibid. George Sansom, who was acknowledged as the best authority on Japan, also warned the Foreign Office that such a bargain would “furnish them with political advantages in return for unspecified commercial benefits.” TNA, FO371/19361, F1116/1116/23 (23/1/1935). Cf. Ian Nish, “G. B. Sansom and His Tokyo Friends,” The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 4th series, Vol. 14 (1999), 88. DBFP, 2-XX, No. 216. The Times, 6/3/1935.

  63. 63.

    Chihiro Hosoya, Ryo-taisen-kan no Nihon Gaiko (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988), p. 130. Sakai, Taisho Democracy, p. 58. JFMA, A. 1. 1. 0. 10, Vol. 3, “Tai-Shi Seisaku nikansuru Shigemitsu Jikan Kojutsu.” TNA, FO371/19243, F5195/6/10 (9/8/1935).

  64. 64.

    Usui, op. cit., p.156. JFMA, A. 1. 1. 0. 10, Vol. 4.

  65. 65.

    Renzo De Felice, Il fascismo e l’oriente: Arabi, ebrei e indiani nella poliica di Mussolini (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1988), pp. 7–40.

  66. 66.

    TNA, FO371/20241, F312/96/10 (16/1/1936).

  67. 67.

    TNA, FO371/20275, F3111/3111/10 (21/4/1936). Endicott, op. cit., pp. 100–101. Yoichi Kibata, “Risu-Rosu Shisetsudan to Ei-Chu Kankei,” in Nozawa, op. cit., pp. 207–208.

  68. 68.

    Nihon Gaiko Nempyo narabini Shuyo Bunsho, Vol. II (Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1966), pp. 244–245. Endicott, op. cit., pp. 107–108. TNA, FO371/19243, F5164/6/10 (8/8/1935). TNA, FO371/19244, F6003/6/10 (18/9/1935). Leith-Ross had heard of Shigemitsu’s reputation as a militarist, but he found Shigemitsu “on the whole moderate and reasonable as well as very intelligent in his views.” Leith-Ross, op. cit., p. 200.

  69. 69.

    Matsuura, “Kodama,” 136–137. Leith-Ross, op. cit., p. 204.

  70. 70.

    TNA, FO371/19244, F6159/6/10 (30/9/1935).

  71. 71.

    Ishijima, op. cit., pp. 40, 46–49. Leith-Ross, op. cit., p. 225.

  72. 72.

    Endicott, op. cit., pp. 21, 116. Leith-Ross, op. cit., pp. 204–205, 222, 224–225.

  73. 73.

    Sumio Hatano, “Risu-Rosu no Kyokuto Homon to Nihon: Chugoku Heisei Kaikaku womegutte,” Kokusai Seiji, No. 58 (1977), 92–93.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 97–98. Endicott, op. cit., pp. 114–117. Matsuura, “Kodama,” 138. TNA, T188/108, No. 51 (13/11/1935).

  75. 75.

    DBFP, 2-XX, No. 486.

  76. 76.

    Ann Trotter, Britain and East Asia 1933–1937 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 181.

  77. 77.

    Inoue, op. cit., pp. 284–286. JFMA, A. 2. 1. 0. C6, “Baba Okura Daijin no ‘Leith-Ross’ Sekken Kaidan Yoryo” (10/6/1936); No. 68 (5/2/1936); “Nichi-Ei Kyoryoku niyoru Tai-Shi Keizai Enjo ni kansuru Ken” (9/4/1936).

  78. 78.

    JFMA, A. 2. 1. 0. C6, “Isogai Shosho Leith-Ross Kaidan Yoshi” (8/6/1936).

  79. 79.

    JFMA, A. 2. 1. 0. C6, “Leith-Ross ni taisuru Oshu Taisaku” (n. d., probably June 1936). The Japan Advertiser, 10/6/1936. JFMA, A. 2. 1. 0. C6, “Horinouchi Jikan Leith-Ross Kaidan Yoroku” (15/5/1936).

  80. 80.

    TNA, FO371/18363, R1580/1287/3 (5/3/1934); R1583/1287/3 (9/3/1934). ADAP, C-II, Nr. 444.

  81. 81.

    The Italian scholar De Vergottini describes Suvich’s “success” in preventing Hungary from going into the German camp, while the Hungarian scholar Ránki has emphasized the Hungarian negative attitude to anti-German cooperation. De Vergottini, op. cit., p. 411. György Ránki, “Il patto tripartito di Roma e la politica estera della Germania (1934),” Studi storici, Vol. III, No. 2 (1962), 360–362.

  82. 82.

    TNA, FO371/18363, R1539/1287/3 (27/2/1934).

  83. 83.

    Ibid., R1663/1287/3 (18/3/1934).

  84. 84.

    Ránki, op. cit., pp. 363–366. ASMAE, AP, Austria, B27, F3, 9/3/1934. O. O., XXVI, p. 192.

  85. 85.

    The National Archives of the United States, Washington D C, Collection of Italian Military Records, 1935–1943, Microcopy T-821, Reel 368, Carteggio relativo al Piano 34 e Piano K trattato dall’ufficio della divisione Leonessa, 4-27; Comando del Corpo di Armata Territoriale, etc., 273–401.

  86. 86.

    ASMAE, AP, Austria, B27, F3, Telegr. A. 1038R (14/3/1934); Osservazioni fatte oralmente dal Sig. Schuller sulla questione del fondo comune (13/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18352, R3606/37/3 (26/6/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1541/1287/3 (3/3/1934); R1663/1287/3 (18/3/1934); R1716/1287/3 (17/3/1934). PAAA, R29471, Abschrift Östreichische Situazionen (März, 1934).

  87. 87.

    ASMAE, AP, Austria, B27, F3, Telegr. 972-11/480 (8/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1398/1287/3 (19/2/1934); R1593/1287/3 (8/3/1934). DBFP, 2-VI, No. 358.

  88. 88.

    Ránki pointed out the Italian eagerness for British support. Ránki, op. cit., pp. 368–369. DBFP, 2-VI, No. 565. Yet Suvich was indecisive, in the same way that his attitude toward the League vacillated. TNA, FO371/18363, R1398/1287/3 (19/2/1934).

  89. 89.

    Ibid., R1716/1287/3 (17/3/1934).

  90. 90.

    ASMAE, AP, Austria, B27, F3, Telegr. A. 1089R (17/3/1934); Telegr. 972-11/480 (8/3/1934). De Vergottini, op. cit., p. 410.

  91. 91.

    ADAP, C-II, Nr. 126.

  92. 92.

    DBFP, 2-VI, No. 462. I documenti diplomatici italiani (hereafter DDI), 7-XV (Roma: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1994), n. 411. De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 1, pp. 494–497.

  93. 93.

    TNA, FO371/18352, R3494/37/3 Minute by Simon (29/6/1934). DDI, 7-XV, n. 401. Bosworth, Mussolini, p. 485.

  94. 94.

    ASMAE, AP, Austria, B31, F1, Telegr. A/C 2717R (25/7/1934). PAAA, R29509, R.M.825 (16/7/1934).

  95. 95.

    TNA, FO371/18352, R4156/37/3 (27/7/1934). The National Archives of the United States, Washington, DC, Collection of Italian Military Records, 1935–1943, Microcopy T-821, Reel 368, Carteggio relativo al Piano 34 e Piano K trattato dall’ufficio della divisione Leonessa, 4-27; Comando del Corpo di Armata Territoriale, etc., 273–401. ASMAE, AP, Austria, B31, F1, Telegr.-Posta 4957/1349 (30/7/1934); Telegr. A. N.2714R (26/7/1934).

  96. 96.

    TNA, FO371/18169, F3590/57/23 (7/6/1934).

  97. 97.

    ADAP, C-III, Nr. 127. Quartararo, op. cit., pp. 83–84. Jens Petersen, Hitler und Mussolini. Die Entstehung der Achse Berlin-Rom 1933–1936 (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1973), S. 331.

  98. 98.

    De Vergottini, op. cit., p. 412. TNA, FO371/18352, R3888/37/3 (14/7/1934).

  99. 99.

    Giorgio Rochat, Militari e politici nella preparazione della campagna d’Etiopia (Milano: Angeli, 1971), pp. 26–40, 101–107. Emilio De Bono, La preparazione e le prime operazioni (Roma: Istituto Nazionale Fascista di Cultura, 1937), pp. 8–13. George W. Baer, The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. 36–38, 41–42, 84. De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 1, p. 644. DBFP, 2-XIV, Nos. 60, 124. Raffaele Guariglia, Ricordi, 1922–1946 (hereafter Guariglia, Ricordi) (Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1949), p. 215.

  100. 100.

    Survey of International Affairs, 1935-II (London: Oxford University Press, 1936), p. 137. DBFP, 2-XIV, Nos. 60, 97.

  101. 101.

    Guariglia, Ricordi, pp. 781–782. Giuseppe Bottai, Vent’ anni e un giorno (Milano: Garzanti, 1977), pp. 124–125. O. O. XXVII, p. 140. Lord Vansittart, The Mist Procession: The Autobiography of Lord Vansittart (London: Hutchinson, 1958), p. 520. Pierre-Étienne Flandin, Politique française 1919–1940 (Paris: Les Éditions Nouvelles, 1947), pp. 178–179. Ivone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: Study of a Demagogie (London: Odhams, 1964), pp. 289–290.

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    Bundesarchiv, Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 43/385, Zeitungsdienst: Auslandsdienst (25/11/1935).

  103. 103.

    Yakichiro Suma, Gaiko Hiroku (Tokyo: Shoko Zaimu Kenkyukai, 1951), pp. 7–9, 27–30. Shigeharu Matsumoto, Shanhai Jidai: Janarisuto no Kaiso, Vol. 1 (Tokyo: Chuko Shinsho, 1974), pp. 247–249. Liu, op. cit., p. 104. Uno, op. cit., pp. 38–39.

  104. 104.

    TNA, FO371/18096, F1339/107/10 (9/3/1934). TNA, FO371/18098, F3252/107/10 (1/6/1934).

  105. 105.

    Suma, op. cit., pp. 76–77.

  106. 106.

    TNA, FO371/20262, F1218/528/10 (7/1/1936). TNA, FO371/20242, F1600/96/10 (19/3/1936); F2218/96/10 (20/4/1936).

  107. 107.

    Takeda, op. cit., pp. 108–111.

  108. 108.

    DBFP, 2-XV, Nos. 175, 187, 278. cf. ASMAE, Fondo Gabinetto, Carte Lancelotti (hereafter FGCL), F16-27, B16, Appunto di Alberto Theodoli per il Sottosegretario (3/11/1935).

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    Pompeo Aloisi , Journal (Paris: Plon, 1957), pp. 327–329. Guariglia, Ricordi, p. 292. De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 1, pp. 719–722. ASMAE, FGCL, F9-15, B15, Appunto del Sottosegretario per il Capo del Governo (14/12/1935).

  110. 110.

    On the racism of Japan and Italy, see also Ken Ishida, “Racisms compared: Fascist Italy and ultra-nationalist Japan,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2002), 380–391.

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Ishida, K. (2018). Planners: The Two Undersecretaries, Mamoru Shigemitsu and Fulvio Suvich. In: Japan, Italy and the Road to the Tripartite Alliance. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96223-8_4

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