Abstract
In its most pure form, the human amnesic syndrome involves a disabling impairment in new learning accompanied by some degree of impairment in aspects of remote memory in the context of relatively normal intellectual ability, language, and attention span. Neuropsychological research has clearly shown that lesions within the brain’s extended memory system (medial temporal lobe, diencephalon, and basal forebrain) produce anterograde amnesia while leaving other aspects of memory (retrieval of general knowledge, vocabulary, names) relatively intact. The episodic–semantic distinction has been useful in explaining key characteristics of the human amnesic syndrome. This chapter provides a framework for characterizing the distinction between “episodic” and “semantic” memory and discusses the clinical features and assessment of disordered function in each of these two domains.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
James W. The principles of psychology. New York: Dover; 1890.
Hebb DO. The organization of behavior: a neuropsychological theory. New York: Wiley; 1949.
Tulving E. Episodic and semantic memory. In: Tulving E, Donaldson W, editors. Organization of memory. New York: Guilford Press; 1972. p. 381–403.
Grilli MD. The association of persona semantic memory to identity representations: insight into higher-order networks of autobiographical contents. Memory. 2017;17:1–9.
Cermak LS. The episodic-semantic distinction in amnesia. In: Squire LR, Butters N, editors. Neuropsychology of memory. New York: Guilford Press; 1984. p. 55–62.
Kinsbourne M, Wood F. Short term memory processes and the amnesic syndrome. In: Deutsch D, Deutsch JA, editors. Short-term memory. New York: Academic Press; 1975. p. 258–91.
Weingartner H, et al. Forms of memory failure. Science. 1983;221(4608):380–2.
Bauer RM, et al. Amnesic disorders. In: Heilman KM, Valenstein E, editors. Clinical neuropsychology. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 504–81.
Moscovitch M, et al. Functional neuroanatomy of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory: a unified account based on multiple trace theory. J Anat. 2005;207(1):35–66.
Steinvorth S, Levine B, Corkin S. Medial temporal lobe structures are needed to re-experience remote autobiographical memories: evidence from H.M. and W.R. Neuropsychologia. 2005;43(4):479–96.
De Renzi E, Liotti M, Nichelli P. Semantic amnesia with preservation of autobiographic memory. A case report. Cortex. 1987;23(4):575–97.
Grossi D, et al. Selective “semantic amnesia” after closed-head injury. A case report. Cortex. 1988;24(3):457–64.
Yasuda K, Watanabe O, Ono Y. Dissociation between semantic and autobiographic memory: a case report. Cortex. 1997;33(4):623–38.
Carlesimo GA, et al. Analysis of the memory impairment in a post-encephalitic patient with focal retrograde amnesia. Cortex. 1998;34(3):449–60.
Hodges JR, McCarthy RA. Loss of remote memory: a cognitive neuropsychological perspective. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1995;5(2):178–83.
Hunkin N. Focal retrograde amnesia following closed head injury: a case study and theoretical account. Neuropsychologia. 1995;33(4):509–23.
Kapur N, et al. Focal retrograde amnesia following bilateral temporal lobe pathology. Brain. 1992;115(1):73–85.
Kapur N, et al. Focal retrograde amnesia: a long term clinical and neuropsychological follow-up. Cortex. 1989;25(3):387–402.
Markowitsch H, et al. Retrograde amnesia for world knowledge and preserved memory for autobiographic events. A case report. Cortex. 1999;35(2):243–52.
O’Connor M, et al. The dissociation of anterograde and retrograde amnesia in a patient with herpes encephalitis. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1992;14(2):159–78.
Kapur N. Syndromes of retrograde amnesia: a conceptual and empirical synthesis. Psychol Bull. 1999;125(6):800–25.
Vargha-Khadem F. Differential effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. Science. 1997;277(5324):376–80.
Butters N, et al. Episodic and semantic memory: a comparison of amnesic and demented patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1987;9(5):479–97.
Cermak LS, Reale L, Baker E. Alcoholic Korsakoff patients’ retrieval from semantic memory. Brain Lang. 1978;5(2):215–26.
Squire LR, Zola SM. Episodic memory, semantic memory, and amnesia. Hippocampus. 1998;8(3):205–11.
Verfaellie M, Cermak LS. Acquisition of generic memory in amnesia. Cortex. 1994;30(2):293–303.
Zola-Morgan S, Cohen NJ, Squire LR. Recall of remote episodic memory in amnesia. Neuropsychologia. 1983;21(5):487–500.
Schacter DL, Wagner AD, Buckner RL. Memory systems of 1999. In: Tulving E, Craik FIM, editors. The Oxford handbook of memory. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000. p. 627–43.
Loftus EF, Cole W. Retrieving attribute and name information from semantic memory. J Exp Psychol. 1974;102(6):1116–22.
Petersen RC. Mild cognitive impairment: aging to Alzheimer’s disease. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004.
Petersen RC, et al. Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2001;56(9):1133–42.
Peterson RC. Mild cognitive impairment: transition from aging to Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2000;21:1.
Devanand DP, et al. Combining early markers strongly predicts conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer’s disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64(10):871–9.
Monastero R, et al. A systematic review of neuropsychiatric symptoms in mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;18(1):11–30.
Braak H, Braak E. Neuropathological stageing of Alzheimer-related changes. Acta Neuropathol. 1991;82(4):239–59.
Taylor KI, Probst A. Anatomic localization of the transentorhinal region of the perirhinal cortex. Neurobiol Aging. 2008;29(10):1591–6.
Loewenstein DA, et al. An investigation of PreMCI: subtypes and longitudinal outcomes. Alzheimers Dement. 2012;8(3):172–9.
Damasio AR, Tranel D, Damasio H. Amnesia caused by herpes simplex encephalitis, infarctions in basal forebrain, Alzheimer’s disease, and anoxia/ischemia. In: Boller F, Grafman J, editors. Handbook of Neuropsychology. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1989. p. 149–66.
Hyman B, et al. Alzheimer’s disease: cell-specific pathology isolates the hippocampal formation. Science. 1984;225(4667):1168–70.
Jack CR, et al. Rate of medial temporal lobe atrophy in typical aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology. 1998;51(4):993–9.
Scott SA, DeKosky ST, Scheff SW. Volumetric atrophy of the amygdala in Alzheimer’s disease: quantitative serial reconstruction. Neurology. 1991;41(3):351.
Whitehouse PJ, et al. Alzheimer disease: evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis. Ann Neurol. 1981;10(2):122–6.
Xuereb JH, et al. Nerve cell loss in the thalamus in Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 1991;114:1363–79.
Rémy F, et al. White matter disruption at the prodromal stage of Alzheimer’s disease: relationships with hippocampal atrophy and episodic memory performance. NeuroImage: Clin. 2015;7:482–92.
Adlam A-LR, et al. The Cambridge Semantic Memory Test Battery: detection of semantic deficits in semantic dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurocase. 2010;16(3):193–207.
Bozeat S, et al. Non-verbal semantic impairment in semantic dementia. Neuropsychologia. 2000;38(9):1207–15.
Davies RR, et al. The neural basis of semantic memory: evidence from semantic dementia. Neurobiol Aging. 2009;30(12):2043–52.
López-Álvarez J, et al. Effect of anticholinergic drugs on cognitive impairment in the elderly. Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental (English Edition). 2015;8(1):35–43.
Drachman DA. Human memory and the cholinergic system. Arch Neurol. 1974;30(2):113.
Womack KB, Heilman KM. Tolterodine and memory. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(5):771.
Benson DF, Marsden CD, Meadows JC. The amnesic syndrome of posterior cerebral artery occlusion. Acta Neurol Scand. 2009;50(2):133–45.
Graff-Radford NR, et al. Diencephalic amnesia. Brain. 1990;113(1):1–25.
Volpe BT, Hirst W. Amnesia following the rupture and repair of an anterior communicating artery aneurysm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983;46(8):704–9.
Park SA, et al. Memory deficits after bilateral anterior fornix infarction. Neurology. 2000;54(6):1379–82.
Renou P, et al. Pure and acute Korsakoff syndrome eye to a bilateral anterior fornix infarction. Arch Neurol. 2008;65(9):1252.
Brierley JB. Experimental hypoxic brain damage. J Clin Pathol. 1977;s3-11(1):181–7.
Zola-Morgan S. Human amnesia and the medial temporal region: enduring memory impairment following a bilateral lesion limited to field CA1 of the hippocampus. Neurocase. 1996;2(4):259aw–298.
Muñoz-López M, et al. Hippocampal damage and memory impairment in congenital cyanotic heart disease. Hippocampus. 2017;27(4):417–24.
Cooper JM, et al. Neonatal hypoxia, hippocampal atrophy, and memory impairment: evidence of a causal sequence. Cereb Cortex. 2013;25(6):1469–76.
Iampietro M, Giovannetti T, Tarazi R. Hypoxia and inflammation in children with sickle cell disease: implications for hippocampal functioning and episodic memory. Neuropsychol Rev. 2014;24(2):252–65.
Squire LR, Zola SM. Ischemic brain damage and memory impairment: a commentary. Hippocampus. 1996;6(5):546–52.
Butters N. Alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome: an update. Semin Neurol. 1984;4(02):226–44.
Butters N, Cermak LS. Alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome: an information processing approach to amnesia. New York: Academic Press; 1980.
Victor M, Adams RD, Collins GH. The Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis; 1971.
Becker JT, et al. Characteristics of the memory loss of a patient with Wernicke-Korsakoff’s syndrome without alcoholism. Neuropsychologia. 1990;28(2):171–9.
Newman ME, et al. Wernicke-Korsakoff amnestic syndrome secondary to malnutrition in a patient with schizoaffective disorder. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. 1998;11(4):241–4.
Krill JJ, Harper CG. Neuroanatomy and neuropathology associated with Korsakoff’s syndrome. Neuropsychol Rev. 2012;22(2):72–80.
Nahum L, et al. Neural correlate of anterograde amnesia in Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome. Brain Topogr. 2014;28(5):760–70.
Damasio AR, et al. Multimodal amnesic syndrome following bilateral temporal and basal forebrain damage. Arch Neurol. 1985;42(3):252–9.
Cermak LS. The encoding capacity of a patient with amnesia due to encephalitis. Neuropsychologia. 1976;14(3):311–26.
Cermak LS, O’Connor M. The anterograde and retrograde retrieval ability of a patient with amnesia due to encephalitis. Neuropsychologia. 1983;21(3):213–34.
Fujii T, et al. Disproportionate retrograde amnesia in a patient with herpes simplex encephalitis. Cortex. 1999;35(5):599–614.
Tanaka Y, et al. Postencephalitic focal retrograde amnesia after bilateral anterior temporal lobe damage. Neurology. 1999;53(2):344.
Wainwright MS, et al. Human herpesvirus 6 limbic encephalitis after stem cell transplantation. Ann Neurol. 2001;50(5):612–9.
Hokkanen L, Launes J. Neuropsychological sequelae of acute-onset sporadic viral encephalitis. Neuropsychol Rehabil. 2007;17(4–5):450–77.
Corsellis JAN, Goldberg GJ, Norton AR. “Limbic encephalitis” and its association with carcinoma. Brain. 1968;91(3):481–96.
Gultekin SH. Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis: neurological symptoms, immunological findings and tumour association in 50 patients. Brain. 2000;123(7):1481–94.
Khan N, Wieser HG. Limbic encephalitis: a case report. Epilepsy Res. 1994;17(2):175–81.
Martin RC, et al. Neuropsychological functioning in a patient with paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1996;2(05):460–6.
Bien CG, et al. Limbic encephalitis not associated with neoplasm as a cause of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2000;55(12):1823–8.
Darnell RB, Posner JB. Autoimmune encephalopathy: the spectrum widens. Ann Neurol. 2009;66(1):1–2.
Dalmau J, Bataller L. Clinical and immunological diversity of limbic encephalitis: a model for paraneoplastic neurologic disorders. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2006;20(6):1319–35.
Nokura K, et al. Reversible limbic encephalitis caused by ovarian teratoma. Acta Neurol Scand. 1997;95(6):367–73.
Dalmau J, et al. Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis: case series and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(12):1091–8.
Florance NR, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol. 2009;66(1):11–8.
Levite M, Ganor Y. Autoantibodies to glutamate receptors can damage the brain in epilepsy, systemic lupus erythematosus and encephalitis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8(7):1141–60.
Levin H. Memory deficit after closed head injury. In: Boller F, Grafman J, editors. Handbook of Neuropsychology, vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1989. p. 183–207.
Ownsworth T, McKenna K. Investigation of factors related to employment outcome following traumatic brain injury: a critical review and conceptual model. Disabil Rehabil. 2004;26(13):765–83.
Ponsford J, Draper K, SchÖNberger M. Functional outcome 10 years after traumatic brain injury: its relationship with demographic, injury severity, and cognitive and emotional status. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2008;14(02):233–42.
Ponsford JL, et al. Prediction of employment status 2 years after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 1995;9(1):11–20.
Russell WR, Nathan PW. Traumatic amnesia. Brain. 1946;69(4):280–300.
Whitty CWM, Zangwill OL. Amnesia. 2nd ed. London: Butterworths; 1977.
Vannorsdall TD, et al. A morphometric analysis of neuroanatomic abnormalities in traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2010;22(2):173–81.
Stern RA, et al. Clinical presentation of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Neurology. 2013;81(13):1122–9.
Montenigro PH, et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: historical origins and current perspective. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2015;11(1):309–30.
Asken BM, et al. Factors influencing clinical correlates of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE): a review. Neuropsychol Rev. 2016;26(4):340–63.
Caplan LB. Transient global amnesia. In: Frederiks JAM, editor. Handbook of clinical neurology, vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1985. p. 205–18.
Hodges JR, Warlow CP. Syndromes of transient amnesia: towards a classification. A study of 153 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990;53(10):834–43.
Kritchevsky M, Squire LR, Zouzounis JA. Transient global amnesia: characterization of anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Neurology. 1988;38(2):213.
Kritchevsky M. Transient global amnesia. In: Boller F, Grafman J, editors. Handbook of neuropsychology, vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1989. p. 167–82.
Bilo L, et al. Transient epileptic amnesia: an emerging late-onset epileptic syndrome. Epilepsia. 2009;50:58–61.
Fisher CM. Transient global amnesia. Arch Neurol. 1982;39(10):605.
Olesen J, Jørgensen MB. Leao’s spreading depression in the hippocampus explains transient global amnesia. Acta Neurol Scand. 2009;73(2):219–20.
Heathfield KWG, Croft PB, Swash M. The syndrome of transient global amnesia. Brain. 1973;96(4):729–36.
Shuping JR, Rollinson RD, Toole JF. Transient global amnesia. Ann Neurol. 1980;7(3):281–5.
Caplan L, et al. Transient global amnesia and migraine. Neurology. 1981;31(9):1167.
Schmidtke K, Ehmsen L. Transient global amnesia and migraine. Eur Neurol. 1998;40(1):9–14.
Tosi L, Righetti CA. Transient global amnesia and migraine in young people. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1997;99(1):63–5.
Haas DC, Ross GS. Transient global amnesia triggered by mild head trauma. Brain. 1986;109(2):251–7.
Chung CP, et al. Detection of intracranial venous reflux in patients of transient global amnesia. Neurology. 2006;66(12):1873–7.
Alberici E, et al. Transient global amnesia: hippocampal magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities. Funct Neurol. 2008;23:149–52.
Ay H, et al. Diffusion-weighted MRI characterizes the ischemic lesion in transient global amnesia. Neurology. 1998;51(3):901–3.
Bartsch T, Deuschl G. Transient global amnesia: functional anatomy and clinical implications. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(2):205–14.
Woolfenden AR, et al. Diffusion-weighted MRI in transient global amnesia precipitated by cerebral angiography. Stroke. 1997;28(11):2311–4.
Sedlaczek O, et al. Detection of delayed focal MR changes in the lateral hippocampus in transient global amnesia. Neurology. 2004;62(12):2165–70.
Toledo M, et al. Lack of evidence for arterial ischemia in transient global amnesia. Stroke. 2008;39(2):476–9.
Peer M, et al. Reversible functional connectivity disturbances during transient global amnesia. Ann Neurol. 2014;75(5):634–43.
Miller JW, et al. Transient global amnesia: clinical characteristics and prognosis. Neurology. 1987;37(5):733.
Butler CR, Zeman A. A case of transient epileptic amnesia with radiological localization. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2008;4(9):516–21.
Kapur N. Transient epileptic amnesia–a clinical update and a reformulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56(11):1184–90.
McCarthy RA, Warrington EK. Past, present, and prospects: reflections 40 years on from the selective impairment of semantic memory (Warrington, 1975). Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2016;69(10):1941–68.
Sackheim HA. The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. In: Moos WH, Gamzu ER, Thal LJ, editors. Cognitive disorders: pathophysiology and treatment. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1992. p. 183–228.
Semkovska M, McLoughlin DM. Objective cognitive performance associated with electroconvulsive therapy for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(6):568–77.
Squire LR. A stable impairment in remote memory following electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychologia. 1975;13(1):51–8.
Squire LR. ECT and memory dysfunction. In: Lerer B, Weiner RD, Belmaker RH, editors. ECT: basic mechanisms. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1984. p. 156–63.
Squire LR. Memory functions six to nine months after electroconvulsive therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975;32(12):1557.
Squire LR, Slater PC. Electroconvulsive therapy and complaints of memory dysfunction: a prospective three-year follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry. 1983;142(1):1–8.
Kirov GG, et al. Evaluation of cumulative cognitive deficits from electroconvulsive therapy. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;208(3):266–70.
Vasavada MM, et al. Short- and long-term cognitive outcomes in patients with major depression treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2017;33(4):1.
Kroes MCW, et al. An electroconvulsive therapy procedure impairs reconsolidation of episodic memories in humans. Nat Neurosci. 2013;17(2):204–6.
Eacott MJ, Crawley RA. Childhood amnesia: on answering questions about very early life events. Memory. 1999;7(3):279–92.
Usher JA, Neisser U. Childhood amnesia and the beginnings of memory for four early life events. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1993;122(2):155–65.
Wetzler SE, Sweeney JA. Childhood amnesia: a conceptualization in cognitive-psychological terms. J Am Psychoanal Assoc. 1986;34(3):663–85.
Roth T, et al. Sleep and memory. In: Benzodiazepine receptor ligands, memory and information processing. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 1988. p. 140–5.
Kessler J, et al. Massive and persistent anterograde amnesia in the absence of detectable brain damage: anterograde psychogenic amnesia or gross reduction in sustained effort? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1997;19(4):604–14.
Kopelman MD. Amnesia: organic and psychogenic. Br J Psychiatry. 1987;150(4):428–42.
Markowitsch HJ. Functional neuroimaging correlates of functional amnesia. Memory. 1999;7(5–6):561–84.
Kapur N. Amnesia in relation to fugue states–distinguishing a neurological from a psychogenic basis. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;159(6):872–7.
Reinhold N, Markowitsch HJ. Retrograde episodic memory and emotion: a perspective from patients with dissociative amnesia. Neuropsychologia. 2009;47(11):2197–206.
Kihlstrom JF, Schacter DL. Functional amnesia. In: Boller F, Grafman J, editors. Handbook of neuropsychology, vol. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2000. p. 409–27.
Staniloiu A, Markowitsch HJ. Dissociative amnesia. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1(3):226–41.
Hodges JR, Patterson K. Semantic dementia: a unique clinicopathological syndrome. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(11):1004–14.
Warrington EK, Shallice T. Category-specific semantic impairments. Brain. 1984;107(3):829–53.
Capitani E, et al. What are the facts of semantic category-specific deficits? A critical review of the clinical evidence. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2003;20(3–6):213–61.
Farah MJ, McClelland JL. A computational model of semantic memory impairment: modality specificity and emergent category specificity. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1991;120(4):339–57.
Thompson-Schill S, et al. A neural basis for category and modality specificity of semantic knowledge. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37(6):671–6.
Tippett LJ, et al. Category specific deficits in Alzheimer’s disease: fact or artefact? Cortex. 2007;43(7):907–20.
Lambon Ralph MA, Lowe C, Rogers TT. Neural basis of category-specific semantic deficits for living things: evidence from semantic dementia, HSVE and a neural network model. Brain. 2006;130(4):1127–37.
Gordon E, Rohrer JD, Fox NC. Advances in neuroimaging in frontotemporal dementia. J Neurochem. 2016;138(Suppl 1):193–210.
Patterson K, Nestor PJ, Rogers TT. Where do you know what you know? The representation of semantic knowledge in the human brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;8(12):976–87.
Gorno-Tempini ML, et al. Cognition and anatomy in three variants of primary progressive aphasia. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(3):335–46.
Davies RR, et al. Progression in frontotemporal dementia. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(11):1627.
Pijnenburg YAL, et al. Initial complaints in frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2004;17(4):302–6.
Thompson SA, Patterson K, Hodges JR. Left/right asymmetry of atrophy in semantic dementia: behavioral-cognitive implications. Neurology. 2003;61(9):1196–203.
Hodges JR, Graham KS. Episodic memory: insights from semantic dementia. In: Episodic memory: new directions in research. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002. pp. 132–52.
Senaha MLH, et al. Semantic dementia: Brazilian study of nineteen cases. Dement Neuropsychol. 2007;1(4):366–73.
Altmann L, McClung J. Effects of semantic impairment on language use in Alzheimer’s disease. Semin Speech Lang. 2008;29(1):18–31.
Cuetos F, Herrera E, Ellis AW. Impaired word recognition in Alzheimer’s disease: the role of age of acquisition. Neuropsychologia. 2010;48(11):3329–34.
Johnston RA, Barry C. Age of acquisition effects in the semantic processing of pictures. Mem Cogn. 2005;33(5):905–12.
Juhasz BJ. Age-of-acquisition effects in word and picture identification. Psychol Bull. 2005;131(5):684–712.
Venneri A, et al. The anatomical bases of semantic retrieval deficits in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia. 2008;46(2):497–510.
Xie SX, et al. Longitudinal patterns of semantic and episodic memory in frontotemporal lobar degeneration and Alzheimer’s disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2009;16(02):278.
Adlam A-LR, et al. Semantic knowledge in mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex. 2006;42(5):675–84.
Hodges J. Is semantic memory consistently impaired early in the course of Alzheimer’s disease? Neuroanatomical and diagnostic implications. Neuropsychologia. 1995;33(4):441–59.
Scahill VL, Hodges JR, Graham KS. Can episodic memory tasks differentiate semantic dementia from Alzheimer’s disease? Neurocase. 2005;11(6):441–51.
Kopelman M, Stanhope N, Kingsley D. Retrograde amnesia in patients with diencephalic, temporal lobe or frontal lesions. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37(8):939–58.
McCarthy RA, Warrington EK. Actors but not scripts: the dissociation of people and events in retrograde amnesia. Neuropsychologia. 1992;30(7):633–44.
Gainotti G. What the locus of brain lesion tells us about the nature of the cognitive defect underlying category-specific disorders: a review. Cortex. 2000;36(4):539–59.
Laws KR, Sartori G. Category deficits and paradoxical dissociations in Alzheimer’s disease and herpes simplex encephalitis. J Cogn Neurosci. 2005;17(9):1453–9.
Noppeney U, et al. Temporal lobe lesions and semantic impairment: a comparison of herpes simplex virus encephalitis and semantic dementia. Brain. 2006;130(4):1138–47.
Butler CR, et al. The syndrome of transient epileptic amnesia. Ann Neurol. 2007;61(6):587–98.
Butler CR, Zeman AZ. Recent insights into the impairment of memory in epilepsy: transient epileptic amnesia, accelerated long-term forgetting and remote memory impairment. Brain. 2008;131(Pt 9):2243–63.
Manes F, et al. Autobiographical amnesia and accelerated forgetting in transient epileptic amnesia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76(10):1387–91.
Milton F, et al. Remote memory deficits in transient epileptic amnesia. Brain. 2010;133(Pt 5):1368–79.
Butler C, et al. Epilepsy-related long-term amnesia: anatomical perspectives. Neuropsychologia. 2012;50(13):2973–80.
Capitani E, et al. Posterior cerebral artery infarcts and semantic category dissociations: a study of 28 patients. Brain. 2009;132(4):965–81.
Johnson JK, et al. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration: demographic characteristics of 353 patients. Arch Neurol. 2005;62(6):925–30.
Saunders AM, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E allele 4 with late-onset familial and sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology. 1993;43(8):1467.
Pietrini V, et al. Recovery from herpes simplex encephalitis: selective impairment of specific semantic categories with neuroradiological correlation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51(10):1284–93.
Bird CM, et al. Topographical short-term memory differentiates Alzheimer’s disease from frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Hippocampus. 2009;20(10):1154–69.
Kramer JH, et al. Distinctive neuropsychological patterns in frontotemporal dementia, semantic dementia, and Alzheimer disease. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2003;16(4):211–8.
Hodges JR, et al. The differentiation of semantic dementia and frontal lobe dementia (temporal and frontal variants of frontotemporal dementia) from early Alzheimer’s disease: a comparative neuropsychological study. Neuropsychology. 1999;13(1):31–40.
Kopelman MD, Wilson BA, Baddeley A. Autobiographical memory interview. Oxford: Pearson Assessments; 1990.
Squire LR, Slater PC. Forgetting in very long-term memory as assessed by an improved questionnaire technique. J Exp Psychol: Hum Learn Mem. 1975;1(1):50–4.
Seelaar H, et al. Clinical, genetic and pathological heterogeneity of frontotemporal dementia: a review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;82(5):476–86.
Wechsler D, Holdnack JA, Drozdick LW. Wechsler memory scale (4th ed.): technical and interpretive manual. San Antonio: Pearson Assessments; 2009.
Benedict RHB, et al. Hopkins Verbal Learning Test Revised: normative data and analysis of inter-form and test-retest reliability. Clin Neuropsychol (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D). 1998;12(1):43–55.
Delis DC, et al. California Verbal Learning Test – 2nd edition (CVLT-II). San Antonio: Psychological Corporation; 2000.
Schmidt M. Rey auditory verbal learning test: a handbook. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services; 1996.
Meyers JE, Meyers KR. Rey complex figure test and recognition trial. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1995.
Benedict RHB, et al. Revision of the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test: studies of normal performance, reliability, and validity. Psychol Assess. 1996;8(2):145–53.
Trahan DE, Larrabee GJ. Continuous visual memory test. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1988.
Wilson AB, et al. Cambridge test of prospective memory (CAMPROMPT). San Antonio: Pearson Assessments; 2005.
Crovitz HF, Schiffman H. Frequency of episodic memories as a function of their age. Bull Psychon Soc. 1974;4(5):517–8.
Wechsler D. Wechsler adult intelligence scale–fourth edition. In: PsycTESTS Dataset. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA); 2008.
Kertesz A. Western Aphasia Battery – revised. San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessments; 2006.
Goodglass H, Kaplan E, Barresi B. Boston diagnostic aphasia examination. 3rd ed. San Antonio: Pearson Assessments; 2000.
Kaplan EF, Goodglass H, Weintraub S. Boston Naming Test. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1983.
Benton AL, Hamsher Kd, Sivan A. Multilingual aphasia examination. 3rd ed. Iowa City: AJA Associates; 1994.
Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer J. Delis-Kaplan executive function system. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation; 2001.
Bishop D. Test for the reception of grammar – 2nd edition (TROG-2). Sydney: Pearson Assessments; 2003.
Grant DA, Berg E. A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. J Exp Psychol. 1948;38(4):404–11.
DeFilippis NA, McCampbell E. Booklet Category Test. 2nd ed. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1997.
Stroop JR. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol. 1935;18(6):643–62.
Luria AR. Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books; 1966.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bauer, R.M., Gaynor, L., Moreno, C., Kuhn, T. (2019). Episodic and Semantic Memory Disorders. In: Ravdin, L.D., Katzen, H.L. (eds) Handbook on the Neuropsychology of Aging and Dementia. Clinical Handbooks in Neuropsychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93497-6_37
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93497-6_37
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-93496-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-93497-6
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)