Skip to main content

The Cyclorrhaphan Larva

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Ecomorphology of Cyclorrhaphan Larvae (Diptera)

Part of the book series: Zoological Monographs ((ZM,volume 4))

  • 386 Accesses

Abstract

The Cyclorrhapha is well-supported, species-rich, biodiverse and includes one of the most explosive of insect radiations. Although the larval stage is considered to be important in the radiation of the Cyclorrhapha, knowledge of larvae is poor, a characteristic of most insect groups with a larval stage. Reasons for such neglect are introduced and include an understandable emphasis on the adult stage in taxonomy, problems of obtaining, rearing and identifying larvae and assumptions that they are inherently similar and poor as a source of data. A brief overview of the literature on cyclorrhaphan larvae is presented. To provide an introduction and to set a context for more detailed assessments that are the subjects of later chapters, the origin of the insect larval stage and its attributes and groundplan states in the Diptera are considered. These attributes and groundplan states include peristalsis, fat storage, dormancy and the puparium, and their influence on cyclorrhaphan larval ecomorphology is introduced. The structure and content of the book is outlined.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anthon H (1988) Larval morphology of Mischoderus (Insecta, Diptera, Nematocera, Tanyderidae) with notes on tanyderid affinities. Zool Scr 17:381–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arias AM (2008) Drosophila melanogaster and the development of biology in the 20th century. In: Dahmann C (ed) Drosophila methods and protocols. Humana, New Jersey, pp 1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold SJ (1983) Morphology, performance and fitness. Am Zool 23:347–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arrese EL, Soulages JL (2010) Insect fat body: energy, metabolism, and regulation. Annu Rev Entomol 55:207–225

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balachowsky A, Mesnil L (1935) Les insectes nuisibles aux plantes cultivées, 2 vols. Busson, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Berlese A (1913) Intorno alle metamorfosi degli insetti. Redia 9:121–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernays EA (1971) The vermiform larva of Schistocerca gregaria (Forskaål): form and activity (Insecta, Orthoptera). Z Morph Tiere 70:183–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Beutel RG, Friedrich F, Hörnschemeyer T, Pohla H, Frank Hünefeld F, Beckmann F, Meier R, Misof B, Whiting MF, Vilhelmsen L (2010) Morphological and molecular evidence converge upon a robust phylogeny of the megadiverse Holometabola. Cladistics 26:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brauer F (1863) Monographie der Oestriden. Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Brauns A (1954) Terricole Dipterenlarven. Musterschmidt Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown BV, Borkent A, Cumming JM, Wood DM, Woodley NE, Zumbado MA (2009, 2010) Manual of Central American Diptera, vols 1–2. National Research Council of Canada, Research Press, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos-Ortega JA, Hartenstein V (1997) The embryonic development of Drosophila melanogaster. Springer, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler AEF (1968) A preliminary key to the eggs of some of the commoner aphidophagous Syrphidae (Diptera) occurring in Britain. Trans R Ent Soc Lond 120:199–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook EF (1949) The evolution of the head in the larvae of the Diptera. Microent 14:1–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtney GW, Sinclair BJ, Meier R (2000) Morphology and terminology of Diptera larvae. In: Papp L, Darvas B (eds) Contributions to a manual of Palaearctic Diptera, vol 1. Science Herald, Budapest, pp 85–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Cumming KP, Sinclair BJ, Wood DM (1995) Homology and phylogenetic implications of male genitalia in Diptera-Eremoneura. Ent Scand 26:120–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowding VM (1967) The function and ecological significance of the pharyngeal ridges occurring in the larvae of some cyclorrhaphous Diptera. Parasitol (Cam) 57:371–388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emden FLV (1957) The taxonomic significance of the characters of immature insects. Annu Rev Entomol 2:91–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrar P (1987) A guide to the breeding habits and immature stages of Diptera Cyclorrhapha. Entomonograph 8:1–907

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths GCD (1972) The phylogenetic classification of Diptera Cyclorrhapha, with special reference to the structure of the male postabdomen. Ser Entomol 8:1–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005) Evolution of the insects. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley JC (1963) The cephalopharyngeal apparatus of syrphid larvae and its relationship to other Diptera. Proc Zool Soc Lond 141:261–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Headrick DH, Goeden RD (1996) The biology of nonfrugivorous tephritid fruit flies. Annu Rev Entomol 43:217–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennig W (1943) Ein Beitrag zum Problem der “Beziehungen zwischen Larven und Imaginalsystematik”. Arb Morphol Taxon Ent Berlin-Dahlem 10:138–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Hennig W (1948, 1950, 1952) Die Larvenformen der Dipteren, vols 1–3. Akademie Verlag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinton HE (1948) On the origin and function of the pupal stage. Trans R Ent Soc Lond 99:395–409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennig W (1973) Diptera (Zweiflügler). In: Helmcke JG, Starck D, Wermuth H (eds) Handbuch der Zoologie. De Gruyter, Berlin, Vol IV, 2 Hälfte: Insecta, 2/31, Lfg

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinton HE (1977) Enabling mechanisms. In: Proceeding of XV international congress of entomology, Washington, DC, pp 71–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinton HE (1981) Biology of insect eggs, vol 1. Pergamon, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Imms AD (1937) Recent advances in entomology. Blakiston, Philadelphia, PA

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Imms AD (1957) A general textbook of entomology. Methuen and Co, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Kambysellis MP, Ho KF, Craddock EM, Piano F, Parisi M, Cohen J (1995) Pattern of ecological shifts in the diversification of Hawaiian Drosophila inferred from a molecular phylogeny. Curr Biol 5:1129–1139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keilin D (1944) Respiratory systems and respiratory adaptations in larvae and pupae of Diptera. Parasitol (Cam) 36:1–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kingsolver JG, Huey RB (2003) Introduction: the evolution of morphology, performance, and fitness. Integr Comp Biol 43:361–366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk-Spriggs AH, Sinclair BJ (eds) (2017) Manual of Afrotropical Diptera, vols 1–3. Suricata 4. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria

    Google Scholar 

  • Kutty SN, Pont AC, Meier R, Pape T (2014) Complete tribal sampling reveals basal split in Muscidae (Diptera), confirms saprophagy as ancestral feeding mode, and reveals an evolutionary correlation between instar numbers and carnivory. Mol Phylogenet Evol 78:349–364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Labandeira CC (2005) The fossil record of insect extinction: new approaches and future directions. Am Entomol 51:14–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Labandeira CC (2011) Evidence for an earliest late carboniferous divergence time and the early larval ecology and diversification of major holometabola lineages. Entomol Am 117:9–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Lambkin C, Sinclair BJ, Pape T, Courtney GW, Skevington JH, Meier R, Yeates DK, Blagoderov V, Wiegmann BM (2013) The phylogenetic relationships among infraorders and superfamilies of Diptera based on morphological evidence. Syst Entomol 38:164–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin LA, Bridges TS (1995) Pattern and diversity in reproduction and development. In: McFdward LR (ed) Ecology of marine invertebrate larvae. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 1–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundbeck W (1902–1927) Diptera Danica genera and species of flies hitherto found in Denmark, vols 1–7. Copenhagen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mamaev BM, Krivosheina NP (1993) The larvae of gall midges (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae): comparative morphology, biology, keys. Balkemia, Rotterdam, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall SA (2013) Flies: the natural history and diversity of Diptera. Firefly Books, Richmond Hill

    Google Scholar 

  • Martínez-Falcón AP, Marcos-García MA, Moreno CE, Rotheray GE (2011) A critical role for Copestylum larvae (Diptera, Syrphidae) in the decomposition of cactus forests. J Arid Environ 78:41–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAlpine JF, Wood DM (eds) (1989) Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Research Branch. Agriculture Canada. Monograph No. 32, vol 3

    Google Scholar 

  • McAlpine JF, Peterson BV, Shewell GE, Teskey HJ, Vockeroth JR, Wood DM (eds) (1981) Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Research Branch. Agriculture Canada. Monograph No. 27, vol 1

    Google Scholar 

  • McAlpine JF, Peterson BV, Shewell GE, Teskey HJ, Vockeroth JR, Wood DM (eds) (1987) Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Research Branch. Agriculture Canada. Monograph No. 28, vol 2

    Google Scholar 

  • McLean IFG (2000) Beneficial Diptera and their role in decomposition. In: Papp L, Darvas B (eds) Contributions to a manual of Palearctic Diptera, vol 1. Science Herald, Budapest, pp 491–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Meier R, Hilger S (2000) On the egg morphology and phylogenetic relationships of Diopsidae (Diptera: Schizophora). J Zool Syst Evol Res 38:1–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meier R, Lim GS (2009) Conflict, convergent evolution, and the relative importance of immature and adult characters in endopterygote phylogenetics. Annu Rev Entomol 54:85–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mirth CK, Riddiford LM (2007) Size assessment and growth control: how adult size is determined in insects. Bio Essays 29:344–355

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neugart C, Schneeberg K, Beutel RG (2009) The morphology of the larval head of Tipulidae (Diptera, Insecta) - the dipteran groundplan and evolutionary trends. Zool Anz 248:213–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papp L, Darvas B (eds) (1998–2000) Contributions to a manual of palaearctic diptera, vol 1–3. Science Herald, Budapest

    Google Scholar 

  • Pechenik JA (1999) On the advantages and disadvantages of larval stages in benthic marine invertebrate life cycles. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 177:269–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell JR (1997) Progress and prospects in evolutionary biology: the Drosophila model. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Poyarkoff E (1914) Essai d’une theorie de la nymphe des insectes holometaboles. Arch Zool Exp Gen 54:221–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricarte A, Marcos-García MA, Hancock EG, Rotheray GE (2015) Neotropical Copestylum Macquart (Diptera: Syrphidae) breeding in fruits and flowers, including 7 new species. PLos One 10:1–58. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142441

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts MJ (1969) The feeding habits of higher Diptera larvae. Entomologist 102:99–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts MJ (1971) The structure of the mouthparts of some calypterate dipteran larvae in relation to their feeding habits. Acta Zool 52:171–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohdendorf BB (1974) The historical development of Diptera. University of Alberta Press, Edmonton, AB

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (2016a) Improving knowledge of the cyclorrhaphan larva (Diptera). J Nat Hist 50:2169–2198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (2016b) Fieldcraft and closing the knowledge gap between immature and adult stages of Diptera Cyclorrhapha. Dipts Digest 23:85–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Lyszkowski R (2015) Diverse mechanisms of feeding and movement in Cyclorrhaphan larvae (Diptera). J Nat Hist 49:2139–2211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schluter D (2000) The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneeberg K, Beutel RG (2014) The evolution of head structures in lower Diptera. Sci Open Res 2014. https://doi.org/10.14293/S2199-1006.1.sor-life.altcei1.v2

  • Schremmer F (1951) Die Mundteile der Brachycerenlarven and der Kopfbau der Larve von Stratiomys chamaeleon. L Osterr Zool Z 3:326–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Sehnal F, Svacha P, Zrzavy J (1996) Evolution of insect metamorphosis. In: Gilbert LI, Tata JR, Atkinson G (eds) Metamorphosis. Academic, San Diego, CA, pp 3–58

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw MR, Askew RR (2010) Hymenopterous parasitoids of Diptera. In: Chandler P (ed) A dipterist’s handbook, vol 15, 2nd edn. The Amateur Entomologist’s Society, Orpington, pp 347–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith KVG (1989) An introduction to the immature stages of british flies. Handbks Ident Br Insects 10:1–280

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass RE (1953) The metamorphosis of a fly’s head. Smith Misc Coll 122:1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Ståhls G, Hippa H, Rotheray G, Muona J, Gilbert F (2003) Phylogeny of Syrphidae (Diptera) inferred from combined analysis of molecular and morphological characters. Syst Entomol 28:433–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stehr FW (1987) Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt, Iowa

    Google Scholar 

  • Strathmann RR (1985) Feeding and nonfeeding larval development and life history evolution in marine invertebrates. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 16:339–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swammerdam J (1758) The book of nature; or, the history of insects (translated by T. Floyd in 1758). Seyffert, London, 153p

    Google Scholar 

  • Teskey HJ (1981) Morphology and terminology – larvae. In: McAlpine J, Peterson BV, Shewell GE, Teskey HJ, Vockeroth JR, Wood DM (eds) Manual of Nearctic Diptera, vol 1, pp 65–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Tkoč M, Tóthová A, Ståhls G, Chandler PJ, Vaňhara J (2016) Molecular phylogeny of flat-footed flies (Diptera: Platypezidae): main clades supported by new morphoogical evidence. Zool Scr 46:429–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trautwein MD, Wiegmann BM, Yeates DK (2010) A multigene phylogeny of the fly superfamily Asiloidea (Insecta): taxon sampling and additional genes reveal the sister-group to all higher flies (Cyclorrhapha). Mol Phylogenet Evol 56:918–930

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trautwein MD, Wiegmann BM, Beutel R, Kjer KM, David K, Yeates DM (2012) Advances in insect phylogeny at the dawn of the postgenomic era. Annu Rev Entomol 57:449–468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Truman JW, Riddiford LM (1999) The origins of insect metamorphosis. Nature 410:447–452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truman JW, Riddiford LM (2002) Endocrine insights into the evolution of metamorphosis in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 47:467–500

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiegmann BM, Trautwein MD, Kim J, Bertone M, Winterton SL, Cassel BK, Yeates DK (2009) Single-copy nuclear genes resolve the phylogeny of the holometabolous insect orders. BMC Biol 7(1):34. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-7-34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wiegmann BM, Trautwein MD, Winkler IS, Barra NB, Kima J-W, Lambkin C, Berton MA, Cassela BK, Bayless KM, Heimberg AM, Wheeler BM, Petersone KJ, Pape T, Sinclair BJ, Skevington JH, Blagoderov V, Caravask J, Narayanan Kutty SN, Schmidt-Ott U, Kampmeier GE, Thompson FC, Grimaldi DA, Beckenbach AT, Courtney GM, Friedrich M, Meier R, Yeates DK (2011) Episodic radiations in the fly tree of life. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 80:5690–5695

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigglesworth VB (1954) The physiology of insect metamorphosis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson DI (2001) Larval transfer and the origins of larvae. Zool J Linnean Soc 131:111–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson DI, Vickers SE (2007) The origins of larvae. Sci Am 95:509–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young AD, Lemmon AR, Skevington JH, Mengua X, Ståhls G, Reemer M, Jordaens K, Kelso S, Lemmon EM, Hauser M, Meyer M, Miso B, Wiegmann BM (2016) Anchored enrichment dataset for true flies (order Diptera) reveals insights into the phylogeny of flower flies (family Syrphidae). Evol Biol 16:143

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Rotheray, G.E. (2019). The Cyclorrhaphan Larva. In: Ecomorphology of Cyclorrhaphan Larvae (Diptera). Zoological Monographs, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92546-2_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics