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Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Fruits pp 673–725Cite as

Breeding of Coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.): The Tree of Life

Abstract

Coconut ( Cocos nucifera L.) is a continuous fruiting perennial tropical fruit and oil crop that is mainly cultivated in the humid and sub-humid coastal tropics. It is a perennial multipurpose palm with great importance in sustaining the life of the people who grow them for various economical uses. As coconut is known as the tree of life, efforts have been made to sustain its production to fulfill the demands of the people. In this regard, coconut genetic resources have been widely exploited through selection , hybridization for a number of desirable traits that resulted in the development of many productive varieties. With increasing demand from the coconut sector, particularly the nontraditional coconut products , it is indeed crucial to identify and screen the potential varieties. However, due to the biological nature of the coconut , the traditional way of breeding might not be feasible; therefore, molecular -aided breeding can be the best alternative. Molecular -aided breeding can play an important role in future coconut breeding programs with the advancements in biotechnology . The strategies suggested for future breeding programs , include development of new high yielding, stress tolerant and disease resistant varieties with the benefits of providing high value-added products, like inflorescence sap or high oil content , and varieties with slow vertical growth. With the availability whole genomic sequences of coconut more opportunities exist for the development of molecular markers , thus encouraging the use of molecular -aided breeding in future coconut breeding programs .

Keywords

  • Coconut
  • Genetic resources
  • Molecular markers
  • Omics
  • Tissue culture
  • Breeding

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Fig. 17.1
Fig. 17.2
Fig. 17.3

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Oil Crops Biology, Coconut Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wenchang, 571339, Hainan, China

    Yaodong Yang

  2. Department of Agriculture, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan

    Amjad Iqbal

  3. Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

    Rashad Qadri

Authors
  1. Yaodong Yang
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  2. Amjad Iqbal
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  3. Rashad Qadri
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yaodong Yang .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, King Faisal University, Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia

    Prof. Jameel M. Al-Khayri

  2. Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Shri Mohan Jain

  3. Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

    Dennis V. Johnson

Appendices

Appendix 1

A list of public and private institutes involved in research related to coconut in various countries

Country Institution name Address Contact information
Bangladesh Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) GPO Box 2235, Joydepur Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh Tel.: 880-2-9800441/9332340
Fax: 880-2-841678
Email:baridg@bttb.net.bd
Benin Institut National Des Researches Agricoles Du Benin (INRAB) Station de Recherché sur le Cocotier
BP Cotonou, Benin 		Tel.: 229-240101
Fax: 229-250266, 225-20 226985/21 248872
Brazil Coconut Germplasm Bank
EMBRAPA/CPATC 		Av. Beira-Mar, 3250
CEP 49025-040 Aracaju-SE Brazil 		Tel.: 55-79-2171300
Fax: 55-79-2319145
Email: tupi@cpatc.embrapa.br
China Coconut Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Science 		Wenchang City, 571339 Hainan Province, China Tel.: 86-898-633330684
Fax: 86-898-63330673
Email: kb0684@163.com
Cook Island Ministry of Agriculture
Government of the Cook Islands 		PO Box 96 Rarotonga, Cook Islands Tel.: 682-28711
Fax: 682-21881
Email:cimoa@oyster.net.ck
Costa Rica Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia Siquirres Frente, Sevicentro Siquirres-Limon, Costa Rica Tel.: 506-718 6092
Fax:506-718-7191/768-8410
Côte d’Ivoire Station de Recherché Marc Delorme,
Centre National De Recherché Agronomique (CNRA) 		Port Bouet, 07 PO Box 13, Abidjan 07, Cote d’Ivoire Tel.:225-21-248872/248067
Cuba Ministerio de La Agricultura
Instituto de Investigaciones de Citricos y Otros Frutales (IICF) 		Ave. 7ma No: 3005 entre, 30 y 32, Miramar, Playa, Havana 10600, Cuba Tel.: 537-293585/225526/246794
Fax: 537-246794/537-335217
Email: iicit@ceniai.inf.cu
Fiji Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests Private Mail Bag, Raiwaqa, Suva, Fiji Tel.: 679-477044 ext.263
Fax: 679-400262
Email: krsinfo@is.com.fj
Ghana Oil Palm Research Institute PO Box 74, Kade, Ghana Tel.: 031-804-710229 (Director)/710226/710228
Fax: 031-233-46357
Email: csur@ghana.com
Guyana National Agriculture Research Institute (NARI) Mon Repos, East Coast Demerara, Guyana Tel.: 592-202841/42/43
Fax: 592-204481
Email: nari@guyana.net.gu
Haiti Ministry of Agriculture
Centre de Recherché et de Documentation Agricoles (CRDA) 		Damien, Republique d’Haiti Tel.: 509 (22) 4503
Fax: 509 (45) 4034
India Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI),
Indian Council of Agricultural Research 		Kasaragod 671 124, Kerala State, India Tel.: 91-4994-430333
Fax: 91-4994-430322
Email: cpcri@x400.nicgw.nic.in
Indonesia Agency for Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development,
Research Institute for Coconut and Palmae 		PO Box 1004, Manado 95001, Indonesia Tel.: 62-431-812430
Fax: 62-431-812587
Email: balitka@mdo.mega.net.id
Jamaica Coconut Industry Board 18 Waterloo Road, PO Box 204
Kingston 10, Jamaica 		Tel.: 1-876-9261770
Fax: 1-876-9681360
Email: conchar@cwjamaica.com
Kenya Regional Research Centre (RRC) Mtwapa Box 16 Mtwapa, Kenya Tel.: 254-11 485842/39
Fax: 254-11 486207
Kiribati Division of Agriculture
Ministry of Natural Resources and Development 		PO Box 267
Bikenibeu, Tarawa, Kiribati 		Tel.: 686-28-139/108
Fax: 686-28-139/21-120
Malaysia Research Station Jalan Air Putih PO Box 44, 24007
Kemaman Terengganu, Malaysia 		Tel.: 60 09-8646361/148
Fax: 60 09-8646361
Email: abo@mardi.my
Marshall Island Ministry of Resources and Development
Agriculture Division 		PO Box 1727, Majuro, Marshall Islands Tel.: 692-625-3206/0740
Fax: 692-625-3005
Email: agridiv@ntamar.com
Mexico Centro de Investigacion Cientifica de Yucatan, A.C. (CICY) Apartado Postal 87, 97310 Cordemex Merida, Yucatan, Mexico Tel.: 52-99-813923/813966
Fax: 52-99-813900/813941
Email: cos@cicy.mx
Mozambique National Agriculture Research Institute (INIA) Box 3658, AV. Das FPLM, INIA-Maputo, Mozambique Tel.: 258(1)460097
Fax: 258(1)460074
Email: sancho@zebra.uem.mz
Myanmar Department of Agriculture,
Planning Ministry of Agriculture 		Thiri Mingalar Lane, Off Kaba Aye Pagoda Road, Yangon, Myanmar Tel.: 095-1-665750
Fax: 095-1-663984/651184
Email: dap.moai@mpt.maid.net.mm
Nigeria Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) PMB 1030 Benin City, Nigeria Tel.: 52-440130
Fax: 52-248549
Pakistan Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Plot No 20, G-5/1, Post Box 1031 45500 Islamabad, Pakistan Tel.: 92-51-920-7402
Fax: 92-51-920-2968/920-240908
Email: hashmi@reshem.sdnpk.undp.org
Papua New Guinea PNG Cocoa and Coconut Research Institute PO Box 1846
Rabaul, East New Britain Province
Rabaul, East New Britain, PNG 		Tel.: 675 983-9108/983-9131/983-9185
Fax: 675 983-9115
Email: ccri@datec.com.pg
Philippines Agricultural Research and Development Branch,
Philippine Coconut Authority 		Marcos Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Tel.: 632-920-0415/632-426-1398
Fax: 632-920-0415
Email: cbcarpio@mozcom.com
Samoa Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and Meteorology PO Box 1587, Apia, Samoa Tel.: 685 23416/20605
Fax: 685 23426/20607/23996
Email: apeters@lesamoa.net
Seychelles Crop Development and Promotion Division,
Ministry of Agriculture and Marine Resources 		Grand Anse, PO Box 166, Victoria Mahe, Seychelles Tel.: 248-378252/378312
Fax: 248-225425
Email: antmoust@seychelles.net
Solomon Islands Dodo Creek Research Station,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 		PO Box G 13, Honiara, Solomon Islands Tel.: 677-31111/31191/31037
Fax: 677-31039/21955/31037
Email: ibsram@welkam.solomon.com.sb
Sri Lanka Coconut Research Institute Bandirippuwa Estate, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka Tel.: 94-31-57391/253795/55300
Fax: 94-31-57391
Email: rescri@sri.lanka.net
Tanzania Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI)
Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives 		PO Box 6226
Dares Salaam, Tanzania 		Tel.: 255 51-700552 or 74606
Fax: 255 51-75549 or 116504
Mobile: 255-812-784031
Email: arim@africaonline.co.tz
Thailand Department of Agriculture,
Horticulture Research Institute 		Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Tel.: 66(2) 579-0583/579-0508/561-4666
Fax: 662-561-4667
Email: hort@doa.go.th
Tonga Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Vainani Research Division, Nuku’alofa, Kingdom of Tonga Tel.: 676-23038
Fax: 676-32132/24271/23093
Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Agriculture Arima PO 52 La Florissante Garden, Dabadie, Trinidad and Tobago Tel.: 1-809-642-8552/642-0718
Fax: 1-809-622-4246
Tuvalu Ministry of National Resources and Environment
Department of Agriculture 		Private Mail Bag Vaiaku, Funafuti, Atoll, Tuvalu Tel.: 688 20-825 or 186
Fax: 688 20-826
Vanuatu Vanuatu Agricultural Research Centre PO Box 231, Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu Tel.: 678-36320/36130
Fax: 678-36355
Email: labouiss@pop.vanuatu.com.vu
Vietnam Oil Plant Institute of Vietnam (OPI) 171-175 Ham Nghi St., District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Tel.: 848-8297336/8243526
Fax: 848-8243528
Email: opi.vn@hcm.vnn.vn

Appendix 2

A list of important coconut cultivars , their important traits and cultivation location

Cultivar Important traits Cultivation location
Aguinaldo Tall Good adaptability to the distinct wet and dry climatic condition; multiple ridges encircling the nut Philippines
Andaman Giant Tall high copra content, tolerant to drought and highly susceptible to stem bleeding India
Andaman Ordinary Tall Sensitive to drought ; sensitive to the burrowing nematode; resistant to stem bleeding disease; high yield and high copra content India
Antique Tall Mapatag Husked nut shape is almost round Philippines
Aromatic Green Dwarf Late germinating Dwarf variety , bears fruits in 3-4 years, and with closely spaced leaf scars; young tender nuts having sweet water and meat which smells like pandan Thailand
Ayiramkachi Tall Susceptible to damage by rodents; susceptible to nut damage caused by the Eriophyid mite India
Bago Oshiro Tall Large-sized coconut ; resistance to leaf spot diseases and moderate tolerance to mites Oligonychus velascoi Rimando Philippines
Baguer Green Dwarf Grow well in areas with distinct dry and wet conditions Philippines
Ballesteros Tall Has an enlarged base that reaches an average circumference of more than 2 m Philippines
Bataan Tall The crown of this variety has a spherical shape Philippines
Baybay Tall High copra weight per nut, thin husk; bunches with short peduncles, fruits often trapped between the petioles of the leaves, and with very robust and thick stem; resistance to leaf spot diseases ; sensitive to mites Oligonychus velascoi Rimando Philippines
Borneo Tall Fruits are large and round to oval in shape; thick kernel and shell Indonesia
Brazilian Green Dwarf BGD is a legendary coconut variety ; sweet young nuts for drinking Brazil
Cambodia Green Dwarf The fruits are oblong in shape and intermediate green color Cambodia
Cambodia Tall Koh Rong Rapid growth, and possesses a thick straight stem, long fronds and large fruits Cambodia
Cameroon Kribi Tall CKT has quite a slender stem, which begins with a discreet bole at the base; susceptible to the so-called kribi disease, a form of lethal yellowing Cameroon
Cameroon Red Dwarf CRD is a short-statured cultivar; susceptible to drought Cameroon
Catigan Green Dwarf The inflorescence has a long peduncle; large fruits and robust stature Philippines
Chowghat Green Dwarf Shell and kernel are thin; sensitive to drought ; tolerance to root (wilt) disease; sensitive to stem bleeding; highly resistant to lethal yellowing India
Chowghat Orange Dwarf Thin shell and a thick kernel; sensitive to drought and water logging; susceptible to leaf spot (gray blight) and stem bleeding India
Cochin China Tall Tolerant to drought but slightly susceptible to nut damage caused by the eriophyid mite Acercia guerreronis; husked nut is round with thick kernel and strong shell Vietnam
Comoro Moheli Tall Widened stem, forming a broad bulb at the base Comoro
East African Tall Fruits are generally oval shaped with a thick husk. Nuts are oblong, thick shelled; moderately tolerant to lethal yellowing disease (LYD), sensitive to Pseudotheraptus wayi and mite attacks Tanzania
Gangabondam Green Dwarf Short inflorescence; sensitive to drought ; susceptible to root wilt disease India
Hainan Tall Tolerant to low temperature , resistance to typhoon China
Indian West Coast Tall High yield under good conditions; yields good quality and quantity of coconut sap. India
Java Tall Fruits have a thick kernel; tolerant to drought ; sensitive to root (wilt) disease; susceptible to stem bleeding; tolerant to burrowing nematodes; and sensitive to Ganoderma/Tanjavur wilt Indonesia
Kappadam Tall Heavy fruits with relatively low husk content; moderately tolerant to Radopholus similis India
Karkar Tall The fruits are very large with a thick strong shell and a thick layer of endosperm; susceptible to leaf spot damage caused by Drechslera incurvata Papua New Guinea
Kinabalan Green Dwarf Husked nut shape is either flat to almost round; grow well in areas with distinct dry and wet conditions Philippines
Kinabuhutan Tall Medium-sized fruit that is oblong in shape; sensitive to drought ; tolerant to Phytophthora sp. Indonesia
King Coconut The fruits are small with thin husk; fruits are yellow red in color and oblong in shape; susceptible to drought ; susceptible to the burrowing nematode Sri Lanka
Laccadive Micro Tall Large number of small and closely packed nuts; sensitive to drought , root (wilt) disease of Kerala and to stem bleeding disease; high oil content (> 72%) India
Laccadive Ordinary Tall Fruits are oblong in shape, medium-sized, with three prominent ridges on the triangular nut; oil-rich copra; tolerant to drought but susceptible to root (wilt) disease India
Lifou Tall The fruits of this cultivar are big in size, greenish-yellow in color and oblong in shape; the nut inside is also oblong with a thick kernel Lifou Island
Madang Brown Dwarf Very susceptible to coconut foliar decay; highly susceptible to cyclones; small palm with a slender stem and no bole Papua New Guinea
Malayan Green Dwarf Has thin stem with no or little bole; starts to flower 2–3 years after field planting Malaysia
Malayan Red Dwarf The seedling sprouts, the leaf stalks, the inflorescence, and the immature fruits are not really red but some kind of bright orange ; kernel is thin and gives rubbery copra; sensitive to drought and is subject to alternate bearing Malaysia
Malayan Straight Settlement Green Tall Kernel is thick with a solid shell; sensitive to drought ; tolerant to root (wilt) diseases ; sensitive to stem bleeding disease Malaysia
Malayan Yellow Dwarf Pale yellow is the color of the seedling sprouts, the leaf stalks, the inflorescence and the immature fruits; Malaysia
Mamuaya Tall Medium-sized, round-shaped fruits; thick endosperm with a thin husk Indonesia
Mapanget Tall Tolerant to drought and to Phytophthora diseases ; high yield of fruit and good quality copra Indonesia
Mapanget Tall-2 Sensitive to drought but tolerant to Phytophthora diseases ; high ratio of endosperm and oil content Indonesia
Marinsow Tall Tolerant to drought , water-logging and low temperature and also tolerant to Phytophthora sp. Indonesia
Markham Valley Tall Susceptible to coconut root (wilt) disease and to foliar decay caused by Mindus taffini; MVT has very large, round and greenish-yellow fruits with nuts that have a thick endosperm Papua New Guinea
Marshall Islands Green Dwarf The water of the nut is particularly sweet; the shiny green fruits are elongated. Marshall Islands
Mozambique Tall Fruits are oblong to round-shaped, quite variable in shape and size Mozambique
Nadora Tall Oval-shaped fruits India
New Caledonia Tall NCT has a thin and slender trunk with a medium-sized bole; well adapted to dry conditions and relatively low temperatures New Caledonia
Nigerian Tall Nigerian Tall is highly susceptible to nut damage caused by the Eriophyid mite Aceria guerreronis. The quality of the tender nut water is not very good Nigeria
Niu Kafa Tall Tonga Very big fruit , the shell is thick and solid and shows very distinctive thick veins; the stem is very thick Tonga
Niu Leka Dwarf Has a bulky stem with a very marked bole for a Dwarf; high copra content Fiji
Palu Tall Round fruits with very low husk content; resistant to drought because of its high content of epicuticular wax and leaf oil Indonesia
Panama Tall The nut with a thick shell is almost round, flatter at the base and contains a thick kernel; good tender nut water; good copra yielder Panama
Panama Tall Aguadulce The stem, which is massive and straight, begins with a marked bole; the fruits are round to ovoid Panama
Pandu Tall Medium- to big-sized fruits with almost round shape; husked nuts are large and round-shaped Indonesia
Pemba Red Dwarf Tanga PRD bears no bole, it has a thin stem; moderately tolerant to lethal disease of coconuts Tanzania
Philippines Lono Tall The kernel is thick with a thin shell Philippines
Philippines Ordinary Tall Tolerant to drought ; relatively tolerant to root (wilt) disease; moderately tolerant to the burrowing nematode; thick kernel Philippines
Pilipog Green Dwarf The pinkish color of its female flowers, root tips, and the base of shoots of newly germinated fruits; moderate tolerance to leaf spot diseases and tolerance to the attack of mites Oligonychus velascoi Rimando Philippines
Pungkol Tall Tolerant to Phytophthora Indonesia
Raja Brown Dwarf Ternate Small palm with a slender stem Indonesia
Rangiroa Tall RGT show susceptibility to Helminthosporium leaf spot Rangiroa
Rangoon Kobbari Tall Oil content in copra is 70% India
Rennell Island Tall Has a bulky stem that starts with a very big bole; leaf is quite short given its huge stem development Solomon Islands
Rotuman Tall Large fruits, with a good composition Fiji
Saint Vincent Tall The fruits are greenish yellow in color and oblong in shape; the husked nut is somewhat angular with thick kernel and thin shell; resistant to root (wilt) disease Trinidad and Tobago
Sakhi Gopal Tall Nut is oval in shape; kernel is thick India
Samoan Tall Spicata Bearing inflorescences with numerous female flowers Samoa
Samoan Yellow Dwarf The stem is thicker than those of the Malayan Yellow Dwarf; the stem starts producing a little bole under good conditions Samoa
San Ramon Tall The husk is thin while the kernel is thick; high copra and oil yields Philippines
Santongbolang Tall Small to medium in size with a round shape; has a stem that is rather thin for a tall coconut Indonesia
Sea Tall Sensitive to drought Indonesia
Seychelles Tall The nut is small and angular. The kernel is thick; high husk content Seychelles
Solomon Island Tall The fruits of the Solomon Island Tall are predominantly brown, slightly coppery and rarely green; flowering takes place 5 years after planting Solomon Islands
Sri Lanka Green Dwarf Resistant to the lethal yellowing; under good conditions, this Dwarf starts bearing 3 years after planting Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Tall The husk content is slightly high; the kernel and shell are thick; tolerant to root (wilt) disease Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Tall Ambakelle Fruit with more meat and less husk; ripe fruits do not have the equatorial belt Sri Lanka
Surinam Brown Dwarf Very short-statured palm; no bole and the crown is circular; the leaves are short with long, thin petioles; susceptible to fatal wilt/heart-rot disease Surinam
Tacunan Green Dwarf Has a thinner stem and fruits Philippines
Tagnanan Tall Good tolerance of nut fall and bud rot caused by Phytophthora fungi Philippines
Tahitian Red Dwarf Palm with red fruits, whose flowers, young fruits and root tips reveal a pink coloration of internal tissues Tahiti
Tahitian Tall Some fruits, of average size and excellent composition, have a surprisingly thin husk, less than
1 cm thick in some places; susceptible to Helminthosporium leaf spot 		Tahiti
Thailand Green Dwarf Round small fruits; young tender nuts having sweet water and meat without smell like pandan Thailand
Thailand Tall Sawi Fruits begin to germinate high in the palms before falling naturally to the ground Thailand
Tiptur Tall Performs well in the low-rainfall areas; water of the tender coconut is tasty and sweet India
Tonga Tall An early yielder compare to the other talls Tonga
Vanuatu Red Dwarf Thin stem and no bole; the leaves are yellowish; small size of the fruit Vanuatu
Vanuatu Tall Stem is slender but broadens at the base; bearing numerous small fruits Vanuatu
West African Tall The stem of WAT is rather thin for a tall cultivar and it has a thin but sometimes curved bole; solid shell and thick kernel; drought susceptible Côte d’Ivoire
West African Tall Ouidah Fruit production generally begins 6–7 years after field planting Benin

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Yang, Y., Iqbal, A., Qadri, R. (2018). Breeding of Coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.): The Tree of Life. In: Al-Khayri, J., Jain, S., Johnson, D. (eds) Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Fruits. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91944-7_17

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