Abstract
Mandarins including clementines, tangerines, satsumas, willowleaf, tangors and tangelos are the second largest cultivated group of citrus after sweet oranges and provide about 25% of world citrus production . Classical breeding has limited potential in citrus crop improvement and is handicapped mainly by nucellar embryony , long juvenility and self-incompatibility . Molecular biology tools have revealed mandarins as one of the primary citrus species and the ancestor of secondary species. A better understanding of genomics , valuable bioinformatics databases and recent advances in molecular breeding have shortened the breeding cycle and accelerated the breeder’s productivity towards improvement in economically-important traits. This chapter elucidates the economic significance, botanical classification and leading cultivars , global distribution of varieties, floral biology and functional genomics , germplasm biodiversity and conservation , origin and genetic backgrounds of polyembryony , haploids and polyploids and their significance in structural genomics , mutation breeding , seedlessness, scope of conventional and somatic hybridization , applications of molecular markers , bioinformatics databases and transgenics . Enhancing international collaboration, accelerated germplasm conservation and exchange programs, integration of classical breeding and the molecular biology tools discussed could enhance the pace of development of high-yielding cultivars with better resistance against changing climatic conditions, emerging biotic and abiotic stresses and help to ensure food security .
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Leading research institutes and online resources involved in citrus breeding and biotechnology
Institutions | Country | Contact information and websites |
|---|---|---|
Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Huazhong Agricultural University | China | +86 27 87286965 |
National Citrus Engineering Research Center, Southwest University Chonquing | +86-23-68349601 | |
Citrus Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Chongqing | +861082106755 | |
The French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) | France | +33(0)1 42 75 90 00 |
French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) | +33 1 53 70 20 00 | |
USDA National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA) | USA | |
Citrus Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida | +1 863-956-1151 | |
Citrus Research Center and Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of California, Riverside | +1 951 827-6555 | |
Division of Citrus research , Institute of Fruit tree and Tea science NARO, Shimizu, Shizuoka | Japan | +81-54-369-7100 |
Center of Citriculture, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias – IVIA, Valencia | Spain | +34 963 42 40 00 |
Centro di Ricerca per l’Agrumicoltura e le colture mediterranee (Research Centre for Citrus and Mediterranean Crops), Catania | Italy | acm@crea.gov.it +39-095-7653111 http://sito.entecra.it/portale/cra_dati_istituto.php |
Citrus and Subtropical Fruit Research Institute | South Africa | http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-itsc/Pages/Citrus .aspx |
Indonesian Citrus and Subtropical Fruits Research Institute, Junrejo District, East Java | Indonesia | http://balitjestro.litbang.pertanian.go.id (+62341) 592683 |
Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur | India | 0712-2500813 |
Citrus Genetic Resources Bank, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, | Korea | http://www.knrrc.or.kr/english/rrc/rrc.jsp?category=75&order=1#36 |
Directorate of Horticulture, Ayub Agriculture Research Institute, Faisalabad | Pakistan | +92-489239212 http://www.agripunjab.gov.pk/research |
Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad | +92-41-9200186 directorihs@uaf.edu.pk | |
Centre of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology (CABB), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad | +92-41-9201087 directorcabb@uaf.edu.pk | |
Center for Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security (USPCAS-AFS), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad | +92-41-2409462-4 uspcasafs@uaf.edu.pk |
Appendix 2
Genetic resources
Cultivars | Important traits | Cultivation location |
|---|---|---|
Miyagawa | Large fruit than Owari, early maturity, highly acidic | Japan |
Nankan No 4 | Balanced flavor | |
Hayashi | Vigorous growth, high sugar content , most finest flavor | |
Aoshima | Smooth rind, long term storage , late maturity | |
Juman | High sugar level, prolonged storage | |
Hassaku | Leaves are pummelo like, fruit resemble Marsh grapefruit | |
Iyokan | Fruit have depressed area at stem end, sweet flavor without bitterness | |
Natsudaidi | Dark green leaves, large grapefruit size fruit , seedy, late maturing, bitter and highly acidic flavor | |
Kiyomi | Soft rind and tender texture , late maturity | |
Seminole | Cup-shaped leaves, fruit borne inside canopy, deep reddish orange color, late maturity, high acid content | |
Tankan | Large orange like leaves, medium-late maturing, rind have pebbly texture | South China, Japan |
Okitsu | Early bearing, completely seedless , high sugar content than Miyagawa | Japan, Spain |
Nules | Extended harvesting , multiple fruit setting | Spain |
Esbal | Early bearing | |
Fina | Small fruit , high juice content | |
Guillermina | Reddish orange fruit color | |
Hernandina | Late maturity, incomplete color development | |
Arrufatina | Thorny, early bearing | |
Clausellina | Early maturity than Owari | |
Planellina | Early maturity than Clausellina, Juicy, thin rind and large fruit size | |
Fortune | Bear fruit inside canopy, late maturing | |
Fremont | Early maturity, reddish orange internal and external color, brittle rind | Spain, Turkey |
Kara | Open habit, droop branches, rough rind, high acid content | Spain, Australia |
Nova | Thorny, reddish orange rind, juicy fine flavor | Spain, Israel, USA |
Wilking | Alternate bearer, firm fruits, seedless | Spain, Morocco |
Pixie | Small and firm fruit , less juicy, mediocre quality | California, Arizona, USA |
Fairchild | Thornless, dense foliage, early maturity, tight rind, tomato like aroma | |
Robinson | Early maturing, thornless, cold hardy, flattish fruit | Florida, USA |
Orlando tangelo | Cup shape leaf , early maturity, difficult to peel, cold hardy | |
Temple | Cold sensitive, fairly thin rind, pulp color don’t match with rind, spicy flavor , self-fertile | |
Sunburst | Early maturing, smooth thin skin | USA |
Minneola tangelo | Less cold resistant, large fruit , unique delicious and distinctive flavor | |
Dancy | Thornless, frost susceptible, well balanced flavor | |
Encore | Dark orange patches on fruit , distinctive rind oil aroma , highly seedy | USA, Japan |
Honey Mandarin | Fruit borne on terminal, cold hardy, thin rind, higher juice and sugar content | USA, Brazil |
Ellendale | Prone to crotch splitting, thin rind, long shelf life, | Australia, Argentina, Uruguay |
Imperial | Early maturity | Australia |
Malaquina | Rough rind texture , insipid flavor | Argentina |
Malvasio | Seedy, late maturity | |
Palazzelli | Clementine like flavor , late maturity, good storage | Italy |
Sun Red | Small fruit size, the highest level of anthocyanins (800 ppm), seedy | |
D2238 | Fruit medium in size, pulp yellow to orange , low naringinin and furanocoumarins, TSS 10–12°Brix, seedless | |
Miho | More vigorous than Okitsu | South Africa |
Ortanique | Late maturity, tough segment walls, outstanding juice color | Jamaica |
Kinnow | Late maturity, smooth rind, seedy, high TSS, fruit size large | Pakistan, India |
Kinnow LS | Late maturity, smooth rind, low seeded, high TSS, fruit size large | Pakistan |
Feutrell’s Early | Early maturity, seedy, high TSS, good fruit quality , fruit size small to medium |
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Usman, M., Fatima, B. (2018). Mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) Breeding. In: Al-Khayri, J., Jain, S., Johnson, D. (eds) Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Fruits. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91944-7_13
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