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France and the Netherlands: Toward Convergence?

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Comparative Perspectives on the Enforcement and Effectiveness of Antidiscrimination Law

Part of the book series: Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law ((GSCL,volume 28))

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Abstract

In a twenty-first century characterized by distrust, questioning resistance to implementation of non-discrimination law involves analyzing contemporary expressions of one of the main conceptual principles of liberal democracy: political and legal equality.

This chapter is the result of a research project entitled “Les juridictions et les instances publiques dans la mise en œuvre du principe de non-discrimination: perspectives pluridisciplinaires et comparées”, funded by the Défenseur des droits et la Mission de recherche Droit et Justice du Ministère de la justice (June 2014–June 2016). Special thanks to the Défenseur des droits and to the Ministère de la Justice for financing this research and to all the researchers who took part in it, in particular the Professor of Law, Marie Mercat-Bruns, who coordinated.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cf. Norris (1999, 2011).

  2. 2.

    Elias (1994), pp. 15–18.

  3. 3.

    Winter (2011).

  4. 4.

    For France, the analysis is based on a qualitative survey carried out in 2014–2015 among some 30 political, institutional, civil association and union leaders and completed by an analysis of public discourse, reports and statements on implementation of the principle of non-discrimination. For the Netherlands, some 15 interviews were carried out in 2014–2015 among political and institutional actors in synergy with analysis of public reports and statements of position.

  5. 5.

    While remaining heuristic in our analysis in that it explores tensions between so-called “republican,” “multicultural,” and “liberal” approaches, the notion of “models” is itself an object of controversy. With regard to the France/Netherlands comparison, see the special issue edited by Bertossi et al. (2012), pp. 237–376. More generally, see: Brubaker (1992) and Joppke (2007), pp. 1–22.

  6. 6.

    Sénac (2012).

  7. 7.

    d’Allonnes (2012).

  8. 8.

    This refers to the shooting dead of 12 people at the offices of the satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo in Paris on January 7, 2015, by Saïd and Chérif Kouachi, who identified themselves as belonging to Al-Qaeda’s branch in Yemen, which took responsibility for the attack.

  9. 9.

    http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid85644/onze-mesures-pour-un-grande-mobilisation-de-l-ecole-pour-les-valeurs-de-la-republique.html.

  10. 10.

    Pélabay (2013), pp. 39–59; Pélabay (2015), pp. 93–99.

  11. 11.

    Dahlerup (2007), pp. 73–92.

  12. 12.

    Comité de réflexion sur le Préambule de la Constitution presided over by Veil (2009), p. 62.

  13. 13.

    Poirmeur (2000), p. 111.

  14. 14.

    Algemene wet gelijke behandeling or General Equal Treatment Act, in English, can be consulted on the website of College voor de Rechten van de Mens: https://mensenrechten.nl/sites/default/files/2013-05-08.Legislation%20Equal%20Treatment.pdf, consulted on the 17.10.2016.

  15. 15.

    The history of non-discrimination in the Netherlands is not about the national development of a communitarian notion, but rather the recognition of a demand nurtured among activists and subsequently exported to the European Union.

  16. 16.

    Goldschmidt (2012), p. 33.

  17. 17.

    The Clara Wichmann Instituut was founded in 1983 driven by feminist movements. Its aim was to improve the situation of women through legal action by supporting complainants and providing financial aid when the litigation undertaken had a potentially broader impact at national or European level. The Foundation focused essentially on strategic litigation and legal aid (social security and equal wages issues, for example). The network continues to exist today through the association known as Vrouw en Recht (Women and Law/rights), even though the Foundation itself ended its legal support activity in 2004 due to lack of financial support.

  18. 18.

    The National Bureau against Racial Discrimination (NBRD) was also founded in the 1980s by activist jurists who had very close links with similar movements in Brussels and London. Beyond the lobbying carried out in the Netherlands aimed at recognition of discrimination against immigrants, the NBRD was one of the founders of the Starting Line Group, an organisation which actively worked on inclusion of the notion of non-discrimination in the Amsterdam Treaty and, later on, the adoption of the European directive known as “Racial Equality Directive.” On the role of the Starting Line Group see: Iyiola (2009) and Andrew (2006), pp. 334–353.

  19. 19.

    The figure of “Zwarte Piet” (“Black Piet”), which is omnipresent in November and December, is a servant to Saint Nicolas. He wears black make-up, red lipstick and an afro wig. At Christmas time, he features on a variety of products and many people dress up in Zwarte Piet costumes. For some it incarnates a beloved Christmas figure and for others a symbol of the racism inherent to a post-colonial society. This affair is symptomatic of the tensions surrounding questions of racism in Dutch society and led to much debate far beyond the Netherlands. In a difficult context, the College declared “Black Piet” to be discriminatory in 2014. The judgement was reiterated in 2015.

  20. 20.

    The College declared itself to be in favour of condemning Geert Wilders, a politician and founder of the nationalist PVV (Freedom Party), during his court case for incitation to hatred against Muslim residents in the Netherlands. The position of the College can be consulted at the following address: http://www.mensenrechten.nl/toegelicht/uitlatingen-geert-wilders-over-%E2%80%98marokkanen%E2%80%99. Page consulted on November 23, 2015.

  21. 21.

    In French: Haute autorité de lutte contre les discriminations et pour l’égalité.

  22. 22.

    Concerning debate on the consequences of the HALDE’s merger with the Défenseur des droits, see in particular written question no 13046 by Roland Courteau, a Socialist Party Deputy for Aude published in the Senate’s Journal Officiel on April 15, 2010 and the answer from the Minister of Justice published in the same Journal on December 9, 2010. “Éric Molinié défend l’autonomie de la Halde”, Libération, 13 December 2010; Allal et al. (2010), and also Martinel and Boulos (2011).

  23. 23.

    http://www.egalitecontreracisme.fr/.

  24. 24.

    Instituted by decree n°2012-221 of February 16, 2012 and placed under the Prime Minister since December 15, 2014.

  25. 25.

    In reference to Article 1 of the Constitution on equality of treatment.

  26. 26.

    Report by the Council of Europe: Examples of good practice in the field of protection and promotion of Human Rights. In response to the invitation by the Commissioner for Human Rights. Example from the Netherlands Municipal Antidiscrimination Services: http://www.coe.int/t/commissioner/Activities/GoodPractices/Netherlands_antidiscriminationservices.pdf.

  27. 27.

    According to the Ministry for Internal Affairs in the Netherlands, the Collège has taken on all the tasks dealt with by its predecessor, the Commission for Equality of Treatment, but its potential scope has been broadened. The Collège has the power to investigate and can be addressed, free of charge, by victims of discriminations or by organizations. The Collège’s opinions are followed in roughly 75% of cases.

  28. 28.

    For example, on ethnic profiling.

  29. 29.

    Miaille (1976), p. 342.

  30. 30.

    Michaut and Michelman (2010).

  31. 31.

    Cf. in particular Cardi and Devreux (coord.) (2014).

  32. 32.

    Habermas (1996).

  33. 33.

    Junter and Sénac-Slawinski (2010), pp. 167–195.

  34. 34.

    Sénac (2012).

  35. 35.

    Genel (2007), p. 92.

  36. 36.

    Beck (1999) and Vielle et al. (dir.) (2005).

  37. 37.

    Dupriez et al. (eds) (2005), p. 6.

  38. 38.

    “Robert Ménard entendu par la police sur le “fichage” des écoliers de Béziers”, LeMonde.fr, 6 mai 2015: http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2015/05/05/quand-robert-menard-fiche-les-enfants-des-ecoles-de-beziers_4627511_823448.html.

  39. 39.

    Valfort (2015).

  40. 40.

    See: http://diversiteitinbedrijf.nl/.

  41. 41.

    A number of individuals interviewed in the Netherlands, who have been active for many years in the associative network and in the Commission for Equality of Treatment, share this perception.

  42. 42.

    According to Ronald Dworkin’s expression.

  43. 43.

    Cf. Jenson (2007), pp. 53–69.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sciences Po, Centre for Political Research, Paris, France

    Réjane Sénac & Janie Pélabay

  2. University of Paris VIII Vincennes Saint-Denis, Department of Political Sciences, Saint-Denis, France

    Lisa Ammon

Authors
  1. Réjane Sénac
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  2. Janie Pélabay
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  3. Lisa Ammon
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Correspondence to Réjane Sénac .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Sciences Po Law School, Paris, France

    Marie Mercat-Bruns

  2. Berkeley Law, Berkeley, California, USA

    David B. Oppenheimer

  3. Berkeley Law, Berkeley, California, USA

    Cady Sartorius

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Sénac, R., Pélabay, J., Ammon, L. (2018). France and the Netherlands: Toward Convergence?. In: Mercat-Bruns, M., Oppenheimer, D., Sartorius, C. (eds) Comparative Perspectives on the Enforcement and Effectiveness of Antidiscrimination Law. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 28. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90068-1_13

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