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Satellite Data as Evidences Before the Mechanisms of International Courts

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Post 2030-Agenda and the Role of Space

Part of the book series: Studies in Space Policy ((STUDSPACE,volume 17))

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Abstract

This paper deals with the importance of the use of satellite data as evidence before international courts. The paper analyses applicable law and provides an overview of international case law so far. It shows that in the future and for the purposes of Post 2030-Agenda of the United Nations, it can be envisaged that these data will be more and more widespread. Satellite data will be significant not only for the traditional issues such as environmental protection or borders delimitation, but also in other domains, like human rights protection.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    UN Doc A/AC. 105/1115 “Coordination of space-related activities within the United Nations system: directions and anticipated results for the period 2016–2017—meeting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, 28 April 2016.

  2. 2.

    Ibidem.

  3. 3.

    Ibidem.

  4. 4.

    UN Resolution A/RES/70/1 “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015.

  5. 5.

    Ibidem.

  6. 6.

    UN Doc A/AC. 105/1115 of 28 April 2016.

  7. 7.

    Rudiger Wolfrum, Mirka Moldner, International Courts and Tribunal, Evidence, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, August 2013.

  8. 8.

    Marco Roscini, Digital Evidence as a Means of Proof before the International Court of Justice, Journal of Conflicts and Security Law, Vol. 21, Issue 3, December 2016, pp. 541–554.

  9. 9.

    Mahulena Hofmann, Remote Sensing, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, March 2011. See also the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (adopted in 1986), Principle 1 (a) The term “remote sensing” means the sensing of the Earth’s surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the protection of the environment.

  10. 10.

    Sergio Marchisio, Le Régime Juridique de la Télédétection, in Philippe Achilleas, Droit de I’Espace, Larcier, 2009, pp. 143–163.

  11. 11.

    Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (adopted in 1986), Principle 1 (b), The term “primary data” means those raw data that are required by remote sensors borne by a space object and that are transmitted or delivered to the ground from space by telemetry in the form of electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any other means.

  12. 12.

    Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (adopted in 1986), Principle 1 (c), The term “processed data” means the products resulting from the processing of the primary data, needed to make such data usable.

  13. 13.

    Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (adopted in 1986), Principle 1 (d), The term “analysed information” means the information resulting from the interpretation of processed data, inputs of data and knowledge from other sources. The UN Remote Sensing Principles refers to three type of data: primary data, processed data, and analysed information. In practice, remote sensing operators utilize many other terms: for instance, “raw data” for primary data, or “derived products” for analysed information. See also: Fabio Tronchetti, Legal aspects of satellite remote sensing, in Frans Von Der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (eds.), Handbook of Space Law, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, pp. 501–533.

  14. 14.

    European Global Navigation Satellite Systems Agency: https://www.gsa.europa.eu/galileo/programme.

  15. 15.

    European Commission—Press release “Galileo goes live!”. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-4366en.htm.

  16. 16.

    Lesley Jane Smith, Legal aspects of satellite navigation, in Frans Von Der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (eds.), Handbook of Space Law, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015, pp. 554–617.

  17. 17.

    Ibidem.

  18. 18.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205 (entered into force 10 October 1967). The other four treaties: Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched into outer space, 22 April 1968, 672 UNTS 119 (entered into force 3 December 1968); Convention in International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 29 March 1972, 961 UNTS 187 (entered into force 1 September 1972); Convention on the Registration of Space Objects Launched into Outer Space, 14 January 1975, 1023 UNTS 15 (entered into force 15 September 1976); Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 18 December 1979, 1363 UNTS 3 (entered into force 11 July 1984).

  19. 19.

    F. Durante, Lezioni di Diritto Aerospaziale, La Sapienza Editrice, Roma, 1997, p. 13.

  20. 20.

    Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, adopted in 1963; Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Broadcasting, adopted in 1982; Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space, adopted in 1986; Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, adopted in 1992; Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefits and in the Interests of all States, Taking into Particular Accounts the Needs of Developing Countries, adopted in 1996.

  21. 21.

    Ram Jakhu, International Law Regarding the Acquisition and Dissemination of Satellite Imagery, Journal of Space Law, Vol. 29, N° 1&2, 2003, pp. 65–92.

  22. 22.

    Paul Larsen, International Regulations of Global Navigation Satellite System, Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 2015, 80, pp. 365–422.

  23. 23.

    Tanja Masson-Zwaan; Some Reflections of the Future of Space Law, in Stephan Hobe (ed.), Air Law, Space Law, Cyber Law: the Institute of Air and Space Law at Age 90, Koln, Carl Heymanns Verlag, 2016, pp. 57–63. See also: Sergio Marchisio, Le Régime Juridique de la Télédétection, in Philippe Achilleas, Droit de I’espace, Larcier, 2009, pp. 143–163. See also: Federico Tajani, Il remote sensing tra interessi particolari e benefici globali nella prospettiva giuridica, in Spazio. Scenari di collaborazione - Note di Diritto Internazionale, a cura di Antonello Folco Biagini, Mariano Bizzari, pp. 77–84.

  24. 24.

    Maria del Carmen Munoz Rodriguez, La aplicacion de la teledeteccion como elemento de prueba ante los tribunales, Instituto Iberoamericano de Derecho Aeronautico y del Espacio y de la Aviacion Comercial, III Seminario sobre actividades espaciales y derecho, Madrid, 2013, pp. 31–46.

  25. 25.

    Frontier Dispute, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 554.

  26. 26.

    Valentina Nardone, Claudia Candelmo, Satellite Evidence in Human Rights Cases: Merits and Shortcomings, Peace Human Rights Governance, 2017, 1(1), pp. 87–113.

  27. 27.

    Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 275.

  28. 28.

    Annette Froehlich, The Impact of Satellite Data Used by High International Courts Like the ICJ and ITLOS, Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, The Hague: Eleven International Publishing, 2012, pp. 471–483.

  29. 29.

    Kasiki/Sedudu Island (Botswana v. Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports, 1999, p. 1045.

  30. 30.

    Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 659.

  31. 31.

    Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 12.

  32. 32.

    Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 14.

  33. 33.

    Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011, p. 70.

  34. 34.

    Op.cit., note 9.

  35. 35.

    Delimitation of the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal (Bengladesh/Myanmar), Judgment, ITLOS Reports 2012, p. 4.

  36. 36.

    Op.cit., note 29.

  37. 37.

    Eya David Macauley, The Use of EO Technologies in Court by the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, in Ray Purdy and Denise Leung (eds.), Evidence from Earth Observation Satellites. Emerging Legal Issues, Leiden: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 2013, pp. 217–240.

  38. 38.

    Mr. Lars Bromley (USA), Expert in Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery.

  39. 39.

    Op.cit., note 38.

  40. 40.

    Ana Cristina Nunez, Admissibility of Remote Sensing Evidence Before International and Regional Tribunals, Innovations in Human Rights Monitoring-Working Paper, August 2012, Amnesty International USA.

  41. 41.

    The ILA Space Law Committee is still working on the topic of the use of satellite data in courts. For recent reflections, see ILA Space Law Committee Reports of the Washington Conference (2014) and the Johannesburg Conference (2016). It is important to mention the foundation in the United Kingdom in 2014 of the Air and Space Evidence, a highly-expert consultancy also known as the World’s first “Space Detective Agency”. The main purpose of its founders is to bridge the gap between law and technology, combining legal knowledge and technical expertise on earth observation. For more information, visit www.space-evidence.net.

  42. 42.

    Satellite data for monitoring war crimes and genocide: Harvard Humanitarian Initiative—Satellite Sentinel Project. See: https://hhi.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/publications/pipeline.pdf.

  43. 43.

    Military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgement, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14.

  44. 44.

    Op.Cit., note 27.

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  1. Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

    Anne-Sophie Martin

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Correspondence to Anne-Sophie Martin .

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  1. European Space Policy Institute , Vienna, Austria

    Annette Froehlich

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Martin, AS. (2018). Satellite Data as Evidences Before the Mechanisms of International Courts. In: Froehlich, A. (eds) Post 2030-Agenda and the Role of Space. Studies in Space Policy, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78954-5_8

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78954-5_8

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