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The Moor’s Counsel: Sir Francis Walsingham’s Advice to Elizabeth I

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Queenship and Counsel in Early Modern Europe

Part of the book series: Queenship and Power ((QAP))

Abstract

Highlighting the valuable counsel that occurred within their problematic and challenging relationship, this chapter analyses the language and structure of Francis Walsingham’s letters to Elizabeth I over the course of his career: how he represented himself, how he presented his arguments, and how he thought of her. An analysis of Walsingham’s techniques and strategies for presenting his advice and arguments in written form is essential to understanding their relationship and to understanding how they negotiated it. Through her analysis, Hannah Coates reveals how Walsingham’s style and approach altered throughout his service to the queen, providing evidence of another side to this important relationship that suggests a strong, mature and complex dynamic, which even included elements of playfulness.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mendoza to Philip II, 30 March 1586, Calendar of Letters and State Papers relating to English Affairs preserved in the Archives of Simancas, ed. Martin A. S. Hume, vol. III, 1580–1586 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode for H.M.S.O., 1892–1899: 1896), 573. Hereafter cited as Cal. Spanish.

  2. 2.

    See for example Hsuan-Ying Tu, “The Pursuit of God’s Glory: Francis Walsingham’s Espionage in Early Elizabethan Politics, 1568–1588” (PhD diss., University of York, 2012), 251–52; John Cooper, The Queen’s Agent: Francis Walsingham at the Court of Elizabeth I (London: Faber and Faber, 2011), 104; Christopher Haigh, Elizabeth I, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, 1998), 87; Lacey Baldwin Smith, Elizabeth Tudor: Portrait of a Queen (London: Hutchinson, 1976), 72; Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), 259.

  3. 3.

    Anne Somerset, Elizabeth I (London: Phoenix, 2003), 353; Sir John Neale, Queen Elizabeth (London: Jonathan Cape, 1934), 238; James Anthony Froude, The Reign of Elizabeth, vol. IV (London: J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1911), 61.

  4. 4.

    Neale, Queen Elizabeth, 228–9; Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham, II, 259; Tu, “Walsingham’s Espionage,” 252; Somerset, Elizabeth I, 353.

  5. 5.

    Froude, Reign of Elizabeth, V, 476–7.

  6. 6.

    See for example Mendoza to Philip II, 9 October 1581, Cal. Spanish, 1580–86, 185. Something of the sort may also have been going on during the 1576 mission of the Sieur de Champagny on behalf of the governor of the Low Countries, Requesens, see Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 322.

  7. 7.

    Walsingham to Sir Christopher Hatton, 23 June 1578, Additional MS 15891, fol. 45v, British Library.

  8. 8.

    See especially Walsingham’s letters to Elizabeth in February, March and April 1575 in SP 12/103, and August and September 1581 in SP 78/6 and also printed in Sir Dudley Digges, The Compleat Ambassador, or, Two Treaties of the Intended Marriage of Queen Elizabeth of Glorious Memory; Comprised in Letters of Negotiation of Sir Francis Walsingham, her Resident in France. Together with the Answers of Lord Burleigh, the Earl of Leicester, Sir Tho: Smith, and others (London: Tho: Newcomb for Gabriel Bedell and Thomas Collins, 1655).

  9. 9.

    For Elizabeth’s letter writing practices and preferences see Rayne Allinson, A Monarchy of Letters: Royal Correspondence and English Diplomacy in the Reign of Elizabeth I (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 17–36; Melanie Evans, “‘By the Queen’: Collaborative Authorship in Scribal Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth I,” in Women and Epistolary Agency in Early Modern Culture, 1450–1690, ed. James Daybell and Andrew Gordon (London: Routledge, 2016), 36–51.

  10. 10.

    James Daybell, “Introduction,” in Early Modern Women’s Letter-Writing, 1450–1700, ed. James Daybell (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), 8.

  11. 11.

    For Elizabeth’s education see, for example, T. W. Baldwin, William Shakespere’s Small Latine and Lesse Greeke (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1944), 25784. For Walsingham’s education see Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 14–20.

  12. 12.

    Joanne Paul, “Counsel and Command in Anglophone Political Thought, 1485–1651” (PhD diss., Queen Mary, University of London, 2013), 41.

  13. 13.

    Sir Thomas Elyot, The book named the governor, 1531 (Menston: Scolar Press, 1970), sig. B52.

  14. 14.

    John A. Guy, “The Rhetoric of Counsel in Early Modern England,” in Tudor Political Culture, ed. Dale Hoak (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 294.

  15. 15.

    Anne McLaren, “Delineating the Elizabethan Body Politic: Knox, Aylmer and the Definition of Counsel 1558–88,” History of Political Thought 17, no. 2 (1996): 241.

  16. 16.

    Victoria Smith, “ “For Ye, Young Men, Show a Womanish Soul, Yon Maiden a Man’s”: Perspectives on Female Monarchy in Elizabeth’s First Decade,” in Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, 1400–1800, ed. James Daybell and Svante Norrhem (London: Routledge, 2017), 153, 151.

  17. 17.

    “Whether it may stand with good policy for her Majesty to join with Spain in the enterprise of Burgundy,” Harley MS 168, fol. 54, BL. For discussion of this document’s attribution, see Simon Adams, Alan Bryson and Mitchell Leimon, “Walsingham, Sir Francis (c.1532–1590),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., May 2009). Accessed 10 November 2015, doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/28624. Hereafter ODNB, “Walsingham.”

  18. 18.

    See for example Walsingham to Henry Cobham, 7 June 1582, SP 78/7, fol. 96-, The National Archives, Kew; Walsingham to Robert Bowes, 22 July 1583, SP 52/32, fol. 107, TNA.

  19. 19.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 10 August 1581, SP 78/6, fol. 4v, TNA.

  20. 20.

    [Walsingham] to Robert Beale, 2 November 1577, SP 81/1, fol. 103, TNA.

  21. 21.

    Linda Shenk, “Turning Learned Authority into Royal Supremacy: Elizabeth I’s Learned Persona and Her University Orations,” in Elizabeth I: Always Her Own Free Woman, eds. Carole Levin, Jo Eldridge Carney and Debra Barrett-Graves (Aldershot, Hampshire, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003), 79.

  22. 22.

    Patrick Collinson, “The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I,” in Elizabethan Essays, ed. Patrick Collinson (London: Hambledown Press, 1994), 44.

  23. 23.

    Daniel Kapust, “Cicero on Decorum and the Morality of Rhetoric,” European Journal of Political Theory 10, no. 1 (2011): 95.

  24. 24.

    David Colclough, “Parrhesia: The Rhetoric of Free Speech in Early Modern England,” Rhetorica 17, no. 2 (1999): 179; Todd S. Frobish, “An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of the Ethos in the Homeric ‘Iliad’ with that Found in Aristotle’s ‘Rhetoric,’” Rhetoric Review 22, no. 1 (2003): 18, 19; Kapust, “Cicero on Decorum,” 97; Joanne Paul, “The Use of Kairos in Renaissance Political Philosophy,” Renaissance Quarterly 67, no. 1 (2014): 44, 46.

  25. 25.

    Colclough, “Parrhesia,” 178–186; James S. Baumlin, “Ciceronian Decorum and the Temporalities of Renaissance Rhetoric,” in Rhetoric and Kairos: Essays in History, Theory, and Praxis, eds. Phillip Sipiora and James S. Baumlin (Albany, New York: University of New York Press, 2002), 138–64; Kapust, “Cicero on Decorum,” 91–112; Paul, “Use of Kairos,” 45–51.

  26. 26.

    Colclough, “Parrhesia,” 183–184, 190; Frobish, “Origin of a Theory,” 27; Kapust, “Cicero on Decorum,” 97.

  27. 27.

    Paul, “Counsel and Command,” 57.

  28. 28.

    Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 18.

  29. 29.

    Natalie Mears, Queenship and Political Discourse in the Elizabethan Realms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 74–78; ODNB, “Walsingham”; Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 13–25.

  30. 30.

    “The othe of a Consellor”, 17 November 1558, SP 12/1, fol. 3v, TNA.

  31. 31.

    Gemma Allen, “Women as Counselors in Sixteenth-Century England: The Letters of lady Anne Bacon and Lady Elizabeth Russell,” in Women and Epistolary Agency in Early Modern Culture, 1450–1690, eds. James Daybell and Andrew Gordon (London: Routledge: 2016), 82, 91.

  32. 32.

    Mears, Queenship and Political Discourse, 35–40.

  33. 33.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 22 February 1575, SP 53/10, fol. 12, TNA.

  34. 34.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 16 January 1575, SP 26/2, fol. 152, TNA.

  35. 35.

    [Walsingham] to [Sir Christopher Hatton], 2 September 1578, SP 83/9, fol. 62v.

  36. 36.

    Walsingham to Sir Amias Paulet, 5 September 1586, SP 53/19, fol. 87, TNA

  37. 37.

    Stephen Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Crisis, 1558–1569 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 41–2; Mears, Queenship and Political Discourse, 271.

  38. 38.

    Walsingham to Thomas Randolph and Robert Bowes, 16 March 1578, Harley MS 6992, fol. 100, BL.

  39. 39.

    Walsingham to Thomas Randolph and Robert Bowes, 16 March 1578, Harley MS 6992, fol. 100v, BL.

  40. 40.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 3 August 1575, Harley MS 6992, fol. 13, BL.

  41. 41.

    Walsingham to [unknown], 1570, SP12/45, fol.1v, TNA.

  42. 42.

    Lois Agnew, “Rhetorical Style and the Formation of Character: Ciceronian Ethos in Thomas Wilson’s Arte of Rhetorique,” Rhetoric Review 17, no. 1 (1998): 93.

  43. 43.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 12 April 1575, SP 12/103, fol. 59, TNA.

  44. 44.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 12 April 1575, SP 12/103, fol. 59, TNA.

  45. 45.

    [Walsingham] to Burghley, 2 September 1578, SP 83/9, fols. 61-61v, TNA.

  46. 46.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 20 March 1575, SP 52/26/2, fol. 159, TNA.

  47. 47.

    Mendoza to Zayas, 16 October 1579, Cal. Spanish, 1568–79, 704. Mendoza was not sure whether “all this is artifice.”

  48. 48.

    Walsingham to Sir Thomas Heneage, 1 June [1571?], Report on the Manuscripts of Allan George Finch, Esq., of Burley on the Hill, Rutland, ed. Sophia Crawford Lomas, vol. I (London: H.M.S.O, 1913), 18; Walsingham to Randolph, [18 March] 1581, SP 52/29, fol. 46, TNA.

  49. 49.

    Walsingham to Robert Bowes, 10 August 1580, SP 52/128, fol. 162–, TNA.

  50. 50.

    Kapust, “Cicero on Decorum,” 102.

  51. 51.

    Rachel McGregor, “Making Friends with Elizabeth in the Letters of Roger Ascham,” in Women and Epistolary Agency in Early Modern Culture, 1450–1690, eds. James Daybell and Andrew Gordon (London: Routledge, 2016), 154.

  52. 52.

    Gary Schneider, The Culture of Epistolarity: Vernacular Letters and Letter Writing in Early Modern England, 1500–1700 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2005), 130–1.

  53. 53.

    Walsingham to William Davison, 15 May 1584, SP 52/34, fol. 69, TNA.

  54. 54.

    Walsingham to Davison, 20 May 1584, SP 52/34, fol. 77, TNA.

  55. 55.

    Walsingham to Randolph, [2] April 1586, SP 52/39, fol. 41, TNA.

  56. 56.

    Walsingham to Huntingdon, 21 March 1581, Report on the manuscripts of the late Reginald Rawdon Hastings, Esq., of the Manor house, Ashby de la Zouche, ed. by John Harley and Francis Bickley, vol. II (London: H.M.S.O., 1930), 29.

  57. 57.

    Walsingham to William Davison, 20 May 1584, SP 52/34, fol. 77, TNA.

  58. 58.

    Walsingham to [Burghley], 24 July 1577, Cotton MS, Caligula C III, fol. 529, BL.

  59. 59.

    See, for example, Walsingham to Elizabeth, 20 March 1575, SP 52/26/2, fol. 159, TNA.

  60. 60.

    Walsingham to Hatton, 23 June 1578, Additional MS 15891, fol. 46, BL.

  61. 61.

    Guy, “Rhetoric of Counsel,” 294.

  62. 62.

    Paul, “Use of Kairos,” 49; Colclough, “Parrhesia,” 190–1.

  63. 63.

    Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 18.

  64. 64.

    Mendoza to Philip II, 31 March 1578, Cal. Spanish, 1568–79, 476.

  65. 65.

    Mary Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith: A Tudor Intellectual in Office (London: University of London, Athlone Press, 1964), especially 119–23, 171–4; Florence M. Greir Evans, The Principal Secretary of State: A Survey of the Office from 1558 to 1580 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1923), 46, 49; Michael B. Pulman, The Elizabethan Privy Council in the Fifteen-Seventies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 152.

  66. 66.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2 September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Hhh 25.

  67. 67.

    Neale, Queen Elizabeth, 214.

  68. 68.

    Neale, Queen Elizabeth, 215.

  69. 69.

    Titus Andronicus (4.2.99), and Jeremiah 13:23, cited in Michael Neill, “‘Mulattos’, ‘Blacks’, and ‘Indian Moors’: Othello and Early Modern Constructions of Human Difference,” Shakespeare Quarterly 49, no. 4 (1998): 364.

  70. 70.

    Leicester to Walsingham, 30 July 1581, Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Hon. the Marquis of Salisbury: preserved at Hatfield House, Hertfordshire, vol. II (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode for H.M.S.O, 1888), 403. Hereafter cited as Hatfield MSS.

  71. 71.

    [Walsingham] to Sir Amias Paulet, 14 January 1578, SP 78/2, fol. 4, TNA. When Elizabeth gave presents in turn, Walsingham was often singularly fortunate. John Nichols, The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth, vol. III (London: John Nichols & Son, 1823), 19.

  72. 72.

    Mary Hill Cole, The Portable Queen: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Ceremony (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 223–4.

  73. 73.

    Hill Cole, Portable Queen, 71, 229.

  74. 74.

    Sir Thomas Smith to Burghley, 7 January 1573, Harley MSS 6991, fol. 19, BL.

  75. 75.

    Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 322.

  76. 76.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 16 October 1576, Harley MSS 6992, fol. 56, BL.

  77. 77.

    Walsingham to Robert Beale, 28 May 1576, Egerton MSS 1694, fol. 12, BL.

  78. 78.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 16 October 1576, Harley MSS 6992, fol. 56, BL.

  79. 79.

    “Negotiations of M. de Villiers with the Prince of Orange,” SP 70/140, fol. 153-, TNA, cited in Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 333–4.

  80. 80.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 3 August 1578, SP 83/8, fol. 7, TNA.

  81. 81.

    Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 334.

  82. 82.

    ODNB, “Walsingham.”

  83. 83.

    For a detailed account of this embassy, see Read, Mr. Secretary, I, 373–422; private bonds: 394.

  84. 84.

    Walsingham to [Burghley], 20 September 1578, SP 83/9, fol. 28v1, TNA.

  85. 85.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 9 September 1578, SP 83/9, fol. 14v, TNA.

  86. 86.

    See for example, [Walsingham] to Sir Thomas Heneage, [2? September] 1578, SP 83/9, fol. 64v, TNA; and [Walsingham] to the earl of Warwick, 18 July 1578, SP 83/9, fol. 60v, TNA.

  87. 87.

    For this view, see Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2 September 1571, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Hhh 25; and for Elizabeth’s threats see Walsingham to Thomas Randolph, 29 July 1578, SP 83/7, fol. 90, TNA.

  88. 88.

    Elizabeth to Walsingham, 8 August 1578, SP 83/8, fol. 16v2, TNA.

  89. 89.

    Evans, “By the Queen,” 43–51.

  90. 90.

    John Zouche to Walsingham, 27 December 1579, SP 63/70, fol. 163, TNA; Walsingham to Sir Henry Cobham, 30 December 1579, SP 78/3, fol. 60, TNA; Read, Mr. Secretary, II, 22; William Pelham to Walsingham, 15 December 1579, SP 63/70, fol. 148; Pelham to Walsingham, 29 December 1579, SP 63/70, fol. 171.

  91. 91.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 16 August 1581, SP 78/6, fol. 13, TNA.

  92. 92.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 16 August 1581, SP 78/6, fol. 13, TNA.

  93. 93.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 16 August 1581, SP 78/6, fol. 13, TNA.

  94. 94.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 16 August 1581, SP 78/6, fol. 13v, TNA.

  95. 95.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2th September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Iii.

  96. 96.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2th September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sigs Hhh 25−Iii.

  97. 97.

    Elizabeth to [Walsingham], September 1581, Hatfield MSS, II, 430.

  98. 98.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2th September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Hhh 25.

  99. 99.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2 September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Hhh 25.

  100. 100.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, [1]2th September 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Iii.

  101. 101.

    Phillip Sipiora, “Kairos: The Rhetoric of Time and Timing in the New Testament,” in Rhetoric and Kairos: Essays in History, Theory, and Praxis, ed. by Phillip Sipiora and James S. Baumlin (Albany, New York: University of New York Press, 2002), 119.

  102. 102.

    Diane Parkin-Speer, “Freedom of Speech in Sixteenth Century English Rhetorics,” Sixteenth Century Journal 12, no. 3 (1981): 65.

  103. 103.

    Walsingham to Elizabeth, 6 August 1581, Digges, Compleat Ambassador, sig. Aaa 22.

  104. 104.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 6 December 1586, SP 12/195, fol. 111, TNA.

  105. 105.

    Walsingham to Burghley, 6 December 1586, SP 12/195, fol. 111v, TNA.

  106. 106.

    Walsingham to Thomas Wilkes, 3 December 1586, SP 84/11, fol. 51, TNA; Walsingham to Burghley, 5 January 1587, SP 12/197, fol. 6; ODNB, “Walsingham.”

  107. 107.

    Burghley to Walsingham, 18 July 1578, SP 83/7, fol. 65v, TNA.

  108. 108.

    Elyot, Governor, sig. B51.

  109. 109.

    [Elizabeth] to Burghley and Walsingham, October 1586, Lansdowne MS 10, fol. 213, BL. See also Evans, “By the Queen,” 40–3.

  110. 110.

    William Davison to Walsingham, 15 October 1586, SP 12/194, fol. 70, TNA.

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  1. University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

    Hannah Coates

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  1. Hannah Coates
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  1. University College London, London, United Kingdom

    Helen Matheson-Pollock

  2. University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom

    Joanne Paul

  3. Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom

    Catherine Fletcher

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Coates, H. (2018). The Moor’s Counsel: Sir Francis Walsingham’s Advice to Elizabeth I. In: Matheson-Pollock, H., Paul, J., Fletcher, C. (eds) Queenship and Counsel in Early Modern Europe. Queenship and Power. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76974-5_9

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76974-5_9

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