Abstract
Hungary in the twentieth century experienced a totalitarian regime where the state held absolute power over information, secluding its citizens from diverse information sources, centrally feeding its propaganda to the public, while fervently collecting data on its subjects through an expansive network of informants. With the change of political regime, this system was gradually transformed, aspiring towards a transparent state through unrestricted access to data of public interest and the exercise of democratic control. Concomitantly, guarantees for the protection of personal data were also laid down. In the 1990s, Hungary boasted a modern, technology-neutral, synoptic legislation guaranteeing informational self-determination and freedom of information, which served as a model to other countries in the region. The institutional underpinnings of information rights were developed in a two-tier system, relying on ombudsman-like and judicial protection. In what follows, I describe the legislative development and concept of information rights in Hungary, detailing the most relevant sources. Next, I turn to the data categories under Hungarian law and the conditions for requesting access. Finally, I discuss available remedies and the overall performance of the system.
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Notes
- 1.
Article 55 of Act No. XX/1949 on the Constitution of Hungarian People’s Republic.
- 2.
- 3.
Article 61 of Act No. XX/1949 on the Constitution of the Republic of Hungary:
(1) In the Republic of Hungary, everyone has the right to freely express his opinion and furthermore to access and distribute information of public interest.
(2) The Republic of Hungary recognizes and respects the freedom of the press.
- 4.
“The regulation of the status of records kept by the intelligence services was just as controversial in Hungary, as in Germany. The legislator had to balance several opposing interests, including protecting victims, prosecuting and protecting criminals, transparency of public life, academic research and current affairs journalism.” Küpper (2008). László Sólyom, the first president of the Constitutional Court of Hungary, drafted the first bill on freedom of information. The guiding principle underlying his draft was “to guarantee the privacy of the individual by dismantling the secrecy of the state.” Sólyom (1988).
- 5.
Government Decision No. 3022/1989, http://abi.atlatszo.hu/index201.php?menu=avtortenet.
- 6.
Act No. LXIII/1992 on the protection of personal data and the publicity of data of public interest.
- 7.
Majtényi (2005).
- 8.
Polyák (2017).
- 9.
Kerekes (2012).
- 10.
- 11.
Act No. LXIII/1992, Chapter IV, Articles 23–27. Although the position of Data Protection Commissioner should have been filled by 1 October 1993 according to Act No. LIX/1993, consensus regarding the candidate could only be achieved in the summer of 1995 (Resolution of Parliament No. 84/1995 (VII. 6.)).
- 12.
Kerekes points out that the vague concepts, the random exceptions and the fact that only 4 of the 37 articles referred to freedom of information show how inexperienced the legislator was, nevertheless securing Hungary a prominent position in the transparency of the public sphere. Kerekes (2012).
- 13.
Act No. XXIV/2003.
- 14.
Act No. XLVIII/2003; Kerekes (2012).
- 15.
Act No. XIX/2005.
- 16.
- 17.
Ráth and Varga (2015).
- 18.
The situation was particularly precarious since “even the competent politicians couldn’t know what records had been drawn up at the time and they didn’t even attempt to pass a decision for the salvaging of the documents.” Varga (2000). In contrast with events that took place in the former German Democratic Republic, where activists prevented the hiding and destruction of Stasi records, witnesses claim that Hungarian intelligence services succeeded in destroying a significant portion of such documents. Trócsányi notes that the remaining piecemeal records were insufficient to play a major part in coming to terms with the socialist past. Trócsányi (1999).
- 19.
“Unit III/III. of the Ministry of the Interior in socialist times was the hub of the secret police that among others, also kept a central archive.” Küpper (2008).
- 20.
Könyves-Tóth (1992).
- 21.
Halmai (2005).
- 22.
Act No. XXIII/1994.
- 23.
In contrast with the Stasi in former GDR, the erstwhile Hungarian intelligence service was retained with few changes following the political change and the perpetrators of the socialist regime, that is, the staff of the service was only gradually transferred or retired. Varga (2000); Halmai (2005). Ráth and Varga emphasize how important it would have been to pass the necessary law on lustration and access to documents, noting that the passing of time was of constitutional relevance, since the legislator acknowledged the situation without making use of its historical chance to lustrate the public sphere, and now, the cathartic moment is gone. Ráth and Varga (2015). Halmai asserts that one of the greatest debts the political change owed to the individual and society as a whole was informational compensation—a debt that has not been satisfied since. Halmai (2005).
- 24.
Act No. III/2003 (the Disclosure Act) on the Disclosure of the Secret Service Activities of the Communist Regime and on the Establishment of the Historical Archives of the Hungarian State Security. László Sólyom also participated in the preparation of this draft law.
- 25.
Articles 3–5 of Act No. III/2003.
- 26.
Draft law T/14230 vom 30. Mai 2005.
- 27.
Article 5 paragraphs 4 and 5 of the amended law.
- 28.
According to Halmai, the Constitutional Court’s decision actually frustrated any further attempt at an efficient informational compensation, since the competing rights of freedom of information and the freedom of scientific research were not considered in sufficient depth. Decision No. 60/1994 (XII. 24.) also shows dogmatic contradictions, since the personal data of public figures held by intelligence services were declared to be data of public interest, thereby blurring the distinction between personal data and data of public interest. This was remedied with the introduction of the concept of data public on grounds of public interest. Halmai (2005).
Act No. XLVIII/2003.
- 29.
Majtényi et al. (2004).
- 30.
Directive 2003/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 November 2003 on the re-use of public sector information. Official Journal L 345, 31/12/2003 P. 0090–0096.
- 31.
Articles 3–6 of Act No. XC/2005.
- 32.
See Article 1 of Act No. XC/2005.
- 33.
Articles 9–20 of Act No. XC/2005.
- 34.
Amendment of 25 March 2013.
- 35.
Buzás and Révész (2012).
- 36.
Official translation, support to be understood as aid or subsidy.
- 37.
Ibid.
- 38.
- 39.
Act No. LXV/1990 on local self-governments.
- 40.
Article 12 paragraph 3–4, Article 17 paragraph 3 of Act No. LXV/1990.
- 41.
32/1992 (V. 29.) Abh 1992, 182, 183.
- 42.
34/1994. (VI. 24.) Abh 1994, 177, 185.
- 43.
Kenedi v. Hungary, Application No. 31475/05, 26 May 2009.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
21/2013. (VII. 19.) Abh, Grounds, 31, own translation.
- 46.
8/2016. (IV. 6.) Abh, Grounds, 43.
- 47.
Társaság a Szabadságjogokért v. Hungary, Application No. 37374/05, 14 April 2009.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
2/2014 (I. 21.) Abh, Grounds, 24.
- 50.
21/2013. (VII. 19.) Abh, Grounds, 35, italics by me.
- 51.
32/1992 (V. 29.) Abh. 36.
- 52.
32/1992 (V. 29.) Abh, 37.
- 53.
Articles 23–27 Avtv.
- 54.
Data Protection Commissioners of Hungary: László Majtényi (1995–2001); Attila Péterfalvi (2001–2007); András Jóri (2008–2011).
- 55.
Resolution of Parliament No. 84/1995 (VII. 6.).
- 56.
- 57.
Csink (2014). Opinion of the Venice Committee No. 672/2012 (18 October 2012).
- 58.
Article 25 Avtv.
- 59.
Jóri (2010).
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
Transitional provisions, Article 16 FL.
- 62.
Article VI paragraph 3 FL: “The application of the right to the protection of personal data and to access data of public interest shall be supervised by an independent authority established by a cardinal Act.”
- 63.
Article 40 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 64.
Kerekes (2012).
- 65.
Opinion of the Venice Commission No. 672/2012 (18 October 2012). Recital 120 of the new Data Protection Regulation provides: “Each supervisory authority should be provided with the financial and human resources, premises and infrastructure necessary for the effective performance of their tasks, including those related to mutual assistance and cooperation with other supervisory authorities throughout the Union. Each supervisory authority should have a separate, public annual budget, which may be part of the overall state or national budget.” Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) OJ L 119, 4.5.2016, pp. 1–88.
- 66.
Csink (2014).
- 67.
C-288/12 Commission v. Hungary.
- 68.
Article 28 paragraph 1 subparagraph 2 of Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data. OJ L 281, 23.11.1995, pp. 31–50.
- 69.
Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (OJ 1995 L 281, p. 31).
- 70.
C-288/12 Commission v. Hungary, paragraph 42.
- 71.
Ibid, paras 52–54.
- 72.
For details, see Soós (2012).
- 73.
Csink (2014).
- 74.
Article 38 paragraph 4 Infotv.
- 75.
Székely (2004).
- 76.
Majtényi (2005).
- 77.
Ibid.
- 78.
Ibid.
- 79.
[BH 1996.581.], EKINT (2006).
- 80.
Ibid.
- 81.
Ibid.
- 82.
Ibid.
- 83.
Act No. CXII/2011, Article 3 paras 3–6.
- 84.
Act No. CXII/2011, Article 3, para 5.
- 85.
Székely (2004).
- 86.
Article 4 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 87.
Article 3 paragraph 10 defines “‘data’ processing’ as any operation or the totality of operations performed on the data, irrespective of the procedure applied; in particular, collecting, recording, registering, classifying, storing, modifying, using, querying, transferring, disclosing, synchronising or connecting, blocking, deleting and destructing the data, as well as preventing their further use, taking photos, making audio or visual recordings, as well as registering physical characteristics suitable for personal identification (such as fingerprints or palm prints, DNA samples, iris scans).”
- 88.
As an exception, Article 6 paragraph 1 foresees that “personal data may be processed also if obtaining the data subject’s consent is impossible or it would give rise to disproportionate costs, and the processing of personal data is necessary: a) for compliance with a legal obligation pertaining to the data controller, or b) for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the controller or by a third party, and enforcing these interests is considered proportionate to the limitation of the right for the protection of personal data.”
- 89.
Article 3 paragraphs 7–8 Infotv.
- 90.
Article 5 paragraph 1 item b) Infotv.
- 91.
Article 3 paragraph 3 item b) Infotv.
- 92.
Madarászné Ifju (2014).
- 93.
Article 3 paragraph 4 Infotv.
- 94.
Madarászné Ifju (2014).
- 95.
Ibid.
- 96.
Article 5 paragraph 2 items b)-c) Infotv.
- 97.
Baka and Szikora (2015).
- 98.
- 99.
Article 2 paragraph 1 of Act No. XCI/2013.
- 100.
NAIH-4203/2012/V.
- 101.
Berkes (2017).
- 102.
Pfv. IV. 20.430/2015/4.
- 103.
T/9380 (29 February 2016), http://www.parlament.hu/irom40/09380/09380.pdf.
- 104.
Article 2 paragraph 2 of Act No. XCI/2013.
- 105.
For example, see the asset declaration of the Hungarian Prime Minister at
http://www.kormany.hu/hu/dok?source=10&type=105#!DocumentBrowse.
- 106.
Article 27 paragraph 2 Infotv.: “Right of access to data of public interest or data public on grounds of public interest may be restricted by law – with the specific type of data indicated – where considered necessary to safeguard: a) national defence; b) national security; c) prevention and prosecution of criminal offenses; d) environmental protection and nature preservation; e) central financial or foreign exchange policy; f) external relations, relations with international organizations; g) court proceedings or administrative proceedings; h) intellectual property rights.”
- 107.
Article 5 Mavtv.
- 108.
Articles 62–63 Infotv.
- 109.
Report of NAIH for the year 2015, Res. B/8388.
- 110.
Article 26 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 111.
NAIH-4203/2012/V.
- 112.
Kovács (1998).
- 113.
Kerekes (2012).
- 114.
32/2006 (VII. 13.) Abh, 430, 439.
- 115.
Kerekes (2012).
- 116.
Article 30 paragraph 6 Infotv.
- 117.
32/1992. (V. 29.) ABh, III 4, own translation.
- 118.
Article 28 paragraph 1–2 Infotv.
- 119.
Article 29 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 120.
NAIH-2125/2014/V.
- 121.
NAIH-973/2014/V.
- 122.
NAIH-4094/2012/H.
- 123.
Majtényi et al. (2004).
- 124.
Directive 2003/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 November 2003 on the re-use of public sector information. Official Journal L 345, 31/12/2003 P. 0090–0096.
- 125.
Articles 1, 3–6 of Act No. XC/2005.
- 126.
Articles 9–20 of Act No. XC/2005.
- 127.
Majtényi et al. (2004).
- 128.
Article 2 paragraph 1 item c) of Act No. XC/2005., Majtényi et al. (2004).
- 129.
Ibid.
- 130.
Act No. CCI/2011.
- 131.
Article 33 paragraph 1 Infotv.: “Access to public information whose publication is rendered mandatory under this Act shall be made available through the internet, in digital format, to the general public without any restriction, in a manner not to allow the identification of specific individuals, in a format allowing for printing or copying without any loss or distortion of data, free of charge, covering also the functions of consultation, downloading, printing, copying and network transmission (hereinafter referred to as “electronic publication”).”
- 132.
Article 6 Paragraph 2 des Gesetzes No. XC/2005. Baka and Szikora (2015).
- 133.
Article 33 paragraph 2 item a) Infotv: “The Office of the President of the Republic, the Office of the Parliament, the Office of the Constitutional Court, the Office of the Parliamentary Commissioners, the State Audit Office, the Office of the National Judiciary Council, the Office of the Prosecutor General, the Office of Economic Competition, the Public Procurement Board, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the National Radio and Television Board”
- 134.
- 135.
“An agency of public administration with competence over the entire territory of the country, in particular ministries, the Prime Minister’s Office, agencies with nationwide powers, the central office, the office of the ministry, the national chamber and c) the county (Budapest) office of public administration.”
- 136.
Article 33 paragraphs 3–4 Infotv.
- 137.
Article 34 paragraphs 2–3 Infotv. Buzás and Révész (2012).
- 138.
Report of NAIH for the year 2012.
- 139.
32/1992 (V. 29.) Abh.
- 140.
32/1992 (V. 29.) Abh.
- 141.
Article 27 paragraph 2 item a)-g) Infotv.
- 142.
Article 27 paragraph 4 Infotv.
- 143.
Report of NAIH for the year 2012.
- 144.
NAIH-2378/2014/T.
- 145.
Report or NAIH for the year 2013, J/13824.
- 146.
NAIH-4442/2012/V.
- 147.
Article 27 paragraph 6 Infotv.
- 148.
Article 30 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 149.
Article 31 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 150.
“Jurisdiction shall be determined by reference to the place where the head offices of the body with public service functions, being the respondent, is located.” Article 31 paragraph 5 Infotv.
- 151.
Article 31 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 152.
Article 31 paragraph 2 Infotv.
- 153.
Article 31 paragraphs 4, 6 Infotv.
- 154.
Article 31 paragraph 7 Infotv.
- 155.
Article 52 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 156.
Article 52 paragraphs 2, 4 Infotv.
- 157.
Article 52 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 158.
Article 53 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 159.
Article 53 paragraph 5 Infotv.
- 160.
Article 53 paragraph 6 Infotv.
- 161.
Article 53 paragraph 4 Infotv.
- 162.
Article 55 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 163.
Article 54 paragraph 1 items a), c), e); Article 54 paragraph 2 Infotv.
- 164.
Article 55 paragraph 1 items a), ac), b) Infotv.
- 165.
Article 56 paragraph 1 Infotv.
- 166.
Article 56 paragraph 2 Infotv.
- 167.
Article 56 paragraph 3 Infotv.
- 168.
Article 56 paragraph 4 Infotv.
- 169.
Article 63 paragraphs 2–7 Infotv.
- 170.
- 171.
Article 63 paragraph 2 Infotv.
- 172.
The Infotv. provides for both the financial and institutional independence of NAIH (Articles 38–39) and the personal, political and financial independence of the President of NAIH (Article 40 paragraph 2, Article 41, Article 43).
- 173.
Kerekes (2012).
- 174.
Article 29 paragraphs 3 and 4 Infotv. amended by Act No. CXXIX/2015.
- 175.
Kerekes (2012).
- 176.
Draft law T/10940 (28 April 2013.), internet, accessed: 30 January 2017.
- 177.
NAIH-1361-2/2014/V.
- 178.
Report of NAIH for the year 2014, B-3002.
- 179.
Report on activities in 2016, NAIH B/13846.
- 180.
Article 71 of Act No. CLI/2011 on the Constitutional Court.
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Láncos, P.L. (2019). Freedom of Information in Hungary: A Shifting Landscape. In: Dragos, D.C., Kovač, P., Marseille, A.T. (eds) The Laws of Transparency in Action. Governance and Public Management. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76460-3_10
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