Abstract
At this point, extensive research and data document the myriad ways that gender shapes social interactions. Yet while sociologists have devoted a great deal of attention to understanding how gender informs interactions, most of this work has yet to incorporate an intersectional approach that examines how these interactions are racialized in ways that produce specific outcomes. In this entry, we briefly review the literature that highlights the multiple ways social interactions are gendered. We then consider different approaches that seek to racialize these interactions, and end our paper with discussion of areas for future research.
Keywords
- Intersectionality
- Race and gender
- Stereotypes
- Social interaction
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
References
Almquist, E. M. (1975). Untangling the effects of race and sex: The disadvantaged status of black women. Social Science Quarterly, 56(1), 129–142.
Babbitt, L. G. (2013). An intersectional approach to black/white interracial interactions: The roles of gender and sexual orientation. Sex Roles, 68, 791–802.
Beal, F. M. (1970). Double jeopardy: To be black and female. In T. Cade (Ed.), The black woman: An anthology (pp. 90–100). New York: Signet.
Bell, E. L. J. E., & Nkomo, S. M. (2001). Our separate ways: Black and white women and the struggle for professional identity. Boston: Harvard Business School Press Books.
Berdahl, J. L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 426–436.
Berger, J., Cohen, B. P., & Zelditch, M. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 37(3), 241–255.
Biernat, M., & Sesko, A. K. (2013). Evaluating the contributions of members of mixed-sex work teams: Race and gender matter. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(3), 471–476.
Bodenhausen, G. V. (2010). Diversity in the person, diversity in the group: Challenges of identity complexity for social perception and social interaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1–16.
Chan, J. W. (2000). Bruce Lee’s fictional model of masculinity. Men and Masculinities, 2(4), 371–387.
Chao, M. M. (2013). Essentializing race: Its implications on racial categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 619–634.
Chen, A. S. (1999). Lives at the Center of the periphery, lives at the periphery of the center: Chinese American Masculinities and Bargaining with Hegemony. Gender and Society, 33(5), 584–607.
Choo, H. Y., & Ferree, M. M. (2010). Practicing intersectionality in sociological research: A critical analysis of inclusions, interactions, and institutions in the study of inequalities. Sociological Theory, 28(2), 129–149.
Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender & power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859.
Correll, S. J., & Ridgeway, C. L. (2003). Expectation states theory. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 29–51). New York: Kluwer Academic Press.
Davis, K. (2008). Intersectionality as buzzword. Feminist Theory, 9(1), 67–85.
Dugger, K. (1988). Social location and gender-role attitudes: A comparison of black and white women. Gender and Society, 2(4), 425–448.
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanksi, and E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories in social psychology (pp. 458–76). London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Feliciano, C., Robnett, B., & Komaie, G. (2009). Gendered racial exclusion among white internet daters. Social Science Research, 38(1), 39–54.
Fiske, S. T., Neuberg, S. L., Beattie, A. E., & Milberg, S. J. (1987). Category-based and attribute-based reactions to others: Some informational conditions of stereotyping and lndividuating processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 399–427.
Foschi, M. (2000). Double standards for competence theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 21–42.
Galinsky, A. D., Hall, E. V., & Cuddy, A. J. C. (2013). Gendered races: Implications for interracial marriage, leadership selection, and athletic participation. Psychological Science, 24(4), 498–506.
Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L. A. (2012). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113–127.
Goff, P. A., Steele, C. M., & Davies, P. G. (2008a). The space between us: Stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 91–107.
Goff, P. A., Thomas, M. A., & Jackson, M. C. (2008b). ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’: Towards an intersectional approach to person perception and group-based harms. Sex Roles, 59, 392–403.
Hall, E. V. (2012). Optimal Masculinity: Feminine races or genders attenuate sanctions for domineering behavior. In Academy of Management Proceedings.
Hall, E. V., Galinsky, A. D., & Phillips, K. W. (2015). Gender profiling: A gendered race perspective on person—Position fit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(6), 853–868.
Hall, E. V., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). The hubris penalty: Biased responses to ‘Celebration’ displays of black football players. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 899–904.
Harkness, S. K. (2016). Discrimination in lending markets: Status and the intersections of gender and race. Social Psychology Quarterly, 79(1), 81–93.
Hull, G. T., Scott, P. B., & Smith, B. (Eds.). (1982). All the women are white, all the blacks are men, but some of us are brave. New York: Feminist Press.
Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 616–626.
Johnson, K. L., Freeman, J. B., & Pauker, K. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(1), 116–131.
Johnson, K. L., & Ghavami, N. (2011). At the crossroads of conspicuous and concealable: What race categories communicate about sexual orientation. PLoS One, 6(3), 1–8.
Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(3), 371–392.
Kunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003). When do stereotypes come to mind and when do they color judgment? A goal-based theoretical framework for stereotype activation and application. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 522–544.
Lewis, K. (2013). The limits of racial prejudice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(47), 18814–18819.
Lin, K. H., & Lundquist, J. (2013). Mate selection in cyberspace: The intersection of race, gender, and education. American Journal of Sociology, 119(1), 183–215.
Littleford, L. N., Wright, M. O. D., & Sayoc-Parial, M. (2005). White students’ intergroup anxiety during same-race and interracial interactions: A multimethod approach. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27(1), 85–94.
Livingston, R. W., & Pearce, N. A. (2009). The teddy-bear effect: Does having a baby face benefit black chief executive officers? Psychological Science, 20(10), 1229–1236.
Livingston, R. W., Rosette, A. S., & Washington, E. F. (2012). Can an agentic black woman get ahead? The impact of race and interpersonal dominance on perceptions of female leaders. Psychological Science, 23(4), 354–358.
Macrae, C. N., & Quadflieg, S. (2010). Perceiving people. In S. T. Fiske and D. T. Gilbert (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 428–463). New York: Wiley.
Messner, M. A. (2000). Barbie girls versus sea monsters: Children constructing gender. Gender and Society, 14(6), 765–784.
Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2014). Male backlash: Penalties for men who violate gender stereotypes. In D. A. Major and R. J. Burke (Eds.), Gender in organizations: Are men allies or adversaries to women’s career advancement? (pp. 247–69). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Rudman, L. A. (2010). Disruptions in women’s self-promotion: The backlash avoidance model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 186–202.
Ong, M. (2005). Body projects of young women of color in physics: Intersections of gender, race, and science. Social Problems, 52(4), 593–617.
Pager, D. (2007). Marked: Race, crime, and finding work in an era of mass incarceration. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Pedulla, D. S. (2014). The positive consequences of negative stereotypes: Race, sexual orientation, and the job application process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77(1), 75–94.
Penner, A. M., & Saperstein, A. (2013). Engendering racial perceptions: An intersectional analysis of how social status shapes race. Gender and Society, 27(3), 319–344.
Pittinsky, T. L., Shih, M. J., & Trahan, A. (2006). Identity cues: Evidence from and for intra-individual perspectives on positive and negative stereotyping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(9), 2215–2239.
Plaks, J. E., Malahy, L. W., Sedlins, M., & Shoda, Y. (2012). Folk beliefs about human genetic variation predict discrete versus continuous racial categorization and evaluative bias. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(1), 31–39.
Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G., & Peruche, M. B. (2010). Routes to positive interracial interactions: Approaching egalitarianism or avoiding prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(9), 1135–1147.
Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 377–391.
Raver, J. L., & Nishii, L. H. (2010). Once, twice, or three times as harmful? Ethnic harassment, gender harassment, and generalized workplace harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 236–254.
Remedios, J. D., & Snyder, S. H. (2015). How women of color detect and respond to multiple forms of prejudice. Sex Roles, 73, 371–383.
Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 637–655.
Ridgeway, C. L. (2009). Framed before we know it. Gender and Society, 23(2), 145–160.
Ridgeway, C. L. (2011). Framed by gender. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender and Society, 18(4), 510–531.
Ridgeway, C. L., & Kricheli-Katz, T. (2013). Intersecting cultural beliefs in social relations: Gender, race, and class binds and freedoms. Gender and Society, 27(3), 294–318.
Ridgeway, C. L., & Smith-Lovin, L. (2006). Gender and interaction. In J. S. Chafetz (Ed.), Handbook of sociology of gender (pp. 247–74). New York: Springer Sciences + Business Media.
Risman, B. J. (1998). Gender vertigo: American families in transition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Risman, B. J. (2004). Gender as a social structure: Theory wrestling with activism. Gender & Society, 18(4), 429–450.
Rosette, A. S., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). Failure is not an option for black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1162–1167.
Rudman, L. A., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Glick, P., & Phelan, J. E. (2012). Reactions to vanguards: Advances in backlash theory. In P. Devine & A. Plant (Eds.), Advances in experimental sociology (pp. 167–227). Burlington: Academic Press.
Schippers, M. (2007). Recovering the feminine other: Masculinity, femininity, and gender hegemony. Theory and Society, 36(1), 85–102.
Schug, J., Alt, N. P., & Klauer, K. C. (2015). Gendered race prototypes: Evidence for the non-prototypicality of Asian men and black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 121–125.
Sesko, A. K., & Biernat, M. (2010). Prototypes of race and gender: The invisibility of black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 356–360.
Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 301–311.
Shih, M., Pittinsky, T. L., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10(1), 80–83.
Shih, M., Sanchez, D. R., & Ho, G. C. (2010). Costs and benefits of switching among multiple social identities. In R. J. C. Chichester (Eds.), The psychology of social and cultural diversity (pp. 62–83). UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Sidanius, J., & Veniegas, R. C. (2000). Gender and race discrimination: The interactive nature of disadvantage. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 47–69). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Silvera, D. H., Krull, D. S., & Sassler, M. A. (2002). Typhoid pollyanna: The effect of category valence on retrieval order of positive and negative category members. European Journal of Social Psychology, 12(2), 227–236.
Skrentny, J. D. (2014). After civil rights: Racial realism in the new American workplace. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. (2003). African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29(1), 38–67.
Thatcher, S. M. B., & Patel, P. C. (2011). Demographic faultlines: A meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1119–1139.
Thomas, E. L., Dovidio, J. F., & West, T. V. (2014). Lost in the categorical shuffle: Evidence for the social non-prototypicality of black women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(3), 370–376.
Todd, A. R., & Simpson, A. J. (2016). Perspective taking and member-to-group generalization of implicit racial attitudes: The role of target prototypicality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 105–112.
Toosi, N. R., Sommers, S. R., & Ambady, N. (2012). Getting a word in group-wise: Effects of racial diversity on gender dynamics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1150–1155.
Trawalter, S., Richeson, J. A., & Nicole Shelton, J. (2009). Predicting behavior during interracial interactions: A stress and coping approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13(4), 243–268.
Turco, C. J. (2010). Cultural foundations of tokenism: Evidence from the leveraged buyout industry. American Sociological Review, 76(6), 894–913.
Veenstra, G. (2013). The gendered nature of discriminatory experiences by race, class, and sexuality: A comparison of intersectionality theory and the subordinate male target hypothesis. Sex Roles, 68(11–12), 646–659.
Wagner, D. G., & Berger, J. (1997). Gender and interpersonal task behavior: Status expectations accounts. Social Perspectives, 40(1), 1–32.
West, C. M. (1995). Mammy, sapphire, and jezebel: Historical images of black women and their implications for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 32(3), 458–466.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125–151.
Wilkins, C. L., Chan, J. F., & Kaiser, C. R. (2011). Racial stereotypes and interracial attraction: Phenotypic prototypicality and perceived attractiveness of Asians. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(4), 427–431.
Williams, C. L. (1992). The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the ‘female’ professions. Social Problems, 39(3), 253–267.
Wingfield, A. H. (2009). Racializing the glass escalator: Reconsidering men’s experiences with women’s work. Gender and Society, 23(1), 5–26.
Wingfield, A. H. (2010). Are some emotions marked ‘whites only’? Racialized feeling rules in professional workplaces. Social Problems, 57(2), 251–268.
Wingfield, A. H., & Wingfield, J. H. (2014). When visibility hurts and helps: How intersections of race and gender shape black professional men’s experiences with tokenization. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(4), 483–490.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chavez, K., Wingfield, A.H. (2018). Racializing Gendered Interactions. In: Risman, B., Froyum, C., Scarborough, W. (eds) Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-76332-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-76333-0
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)