Black Politics

Smith, Robert C.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75571-7_2

Robert C. Smith²

108 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter is the core of the book. In the chapter the author critically examines Walton’s work in multiple areas of study: political parties; the southern “native son” presidencies of Lyndon Johnson, Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton; the political philosophy of Martin King, Jr.; the institutionalization of the Civil Rights Movement and the development of civil rights enforcement policies; and African politics. The author then turns to Walton’s work in codifying and systematizing knowledge as part of his work to establish the legitimacy of the black politics field, focusing on his textbooks, bibliographic studies, reference works, history of the study of race in political science and Walton’s stunning and path-breaking critique of the behavioral approach in the study of race.

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Notes

1.
E.E Schattschneider, Party Government (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1972).
2.
Hanes Walton, Jr. “The Negro in Progressive Party Movements” The Quarterly Review of Education Among Negros 36(1958): 17–26.
3.
Hanes Walton, Jr. “Ronald Walters as a Political Empowerment Theorist: The Concept of Leverage Strategies” in Robert C. Smith, Cedric Johnson and Robert Newby (eds.) What Has This Got to Do With the Liberation of Black People?: The Impact of Ronald W. Walters on African American Thought and Leadership (Albany: SUNY Press, 2014). In this chapter Walton traces Walters’ theory of “independent leverage” or the black vote as a potential balance of power in presidential elections to the pioneering work of W. E. B. DuBois, Ralph Bunche and Henry Lee Moon. He concludes that Walter’s work was largely ignored except in the African American community, but he writes “Walters became a matchless theorist, and his ideas will continue to cast a positive intellectual shadow on the nation’s democratic order and political system. His influence is formidable. It offers new dimensions to political party analysis, voting behavior, and racial politics in making a mature democratic system such as America truly democratic. It is a new look at democratic theory itself. Thus the discipline in ignoring Walters’ theorizing, delays its own growth and progress as a democracy” (p. 282).
4.
Leon Epstein “The Scholarly Commitment to Parties” in Ada Finifter (ed.) Political Science: The State of the Discipline (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983). See also Max Weber “Class, Status and Party” in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (ed.), From Max Weber (New York: Oxford, 1946).
5.
John Bibby “In Defense of the Two Party System” in Paul Herrnson and John Green (eds.) Multiparty Politics in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman& Littlefield, 1997).
6.
Quoted in Robert C. Smith and Richard Seltzer “The Deck and the Sea: The African American Vote in the Elections of 2000 and 2004” National Political Science Review 11(2007): 203–69.
7.
Hanes Walton, Jr., Black Republicans: The Politics of the Black and Tan (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1975): 164.
8.
Hanes Walton, Jr., The Negro in Third Party Politics (Philadelphia: Dorrance Press, 1969): 21.
9.
Hanes Walton, Jr., Black Political Parties: A Historical and Political Analysis (New York: The Free Press, 1971): 135.
10.
Walton, The Negro in Third Party Politics, p. 80.
11.
Ibid.
12.
Walton, Black Political Parties, p. 36.
13.
Walton, The Negro in Third Party Politics, p. 37.
14.
Walton, Black Political Parties, pp. 59–63.
15.
Ibid., p. 189.
16.
Ibid., p. 190.
17.
Amiri Baraka “Toward the Creation of Political Institutions for All African Peoples” Black World 21(1972): 62–63, Ronald Walters “Strategy for 1976: A Black Political Party” Black Scholar 7(1975): 14–25. On Jackson’s call for the establishment of a black party, see Robert C. Smith, We Have No Leaders: African Americans in the Post Civil Rights Era (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996): 48.
18.
Walton, Black Political Parties, p. 190.
19.
Ibid., p. 204.
20.
Ibid., p. 198.
21.
Samuel Eldersveld and Hanes Walton, Jr, Political Parties in American Society (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000): xii, 254.
22.
Ibid., p. 370.
23.
Ibid.
24.
Ibid., p. 380.
25.
Ibid.
26.
Ibid.
27.
Ibid., p. 382.
28.
Ibid.
29.
Ibid., pp. 383–84.
30.
V. O. Key , Southern Politics in State and Nation (New York: Knopf, 1949): 37–41.
31.
Michael Lewis-Beck and Tom Rice “Localism in Presidential Elections: The Home State Advantage” American Journal of Political Science 27(1983): 548–56.
32.
Robert Brown “Introduction” Hanes Walton, Jr., Reelection: William Jefferson Clinton as a Native Son Presidential Candidate (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000): xxi.
33.
Jerome Clubb, Nancy Flanagan and Nancy Zingale (eds.), Analyzing Electoral History: A Guide to the Study of American Voting Behavior (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1984): 15.
34.
Walter Dean Burnham “Printed Sources” in Ibid., p. 58.
35.
Nick Kotz, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr and the Laws That Changed America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005): 128.
36.
Ibid.
37.
Randall Woods, LBJ: Architect of American Ambition (New York: Free Press, 2006): 480.
38.
Hanes Walton, Jr., et al. “The Red and Blue State Divide in Black and White: The Historic 2008 Election of Barack Obama” Black Scholar 38(2008): 19–30 and Walton et al. “Dead Certain: The Election of Barack Obama and Its Implications for Racial Politics” in Charles Henry, Robert Chrisman and Robert Allen (eds.) The Obama Phenomenon: Toward A Multiracial Democracy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011).
39.
Robert C. Smith, John F. Kennedy, Barack Obama and the Politics of Ethnic Incorporation and Avoidance (Albany: SUNY Press, 2013) and Fredrick Harris, The Price of the Ticket: Barack Obama and the Rise and Decline of Black Politics (New York; Columbia University Press, 2012).
40.
Glenn Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
41.
David Garrow, Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Voting Rights Act (New Haven: Yale, 1978).
42.
James Ralph, Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago and the Civil Rights Movement (Cambridge: Harvard, 1993).
43.
Hanes Walton, Jr., The Political Philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1971): 49.
44.
Ibid., p. 77.
45.
Ibid., pp. 40–41.
46.
Other inquiries into the philosophical basis of King’s work include Richard Lischer, The Preacher King: Martin Luther King, Jr and the Word That Moved America (New York: Oxford, 1995) and Kenneth Smith and Ira Zepp, Search for the Beloved Community: The Thinking of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1994).
47.
Samuel DuBois Cook, “Foreword”, Walton, The Political Philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr., p. xxxviiii.
48.
Walton, The Political Philosophy, pp. 79, 81, 96, 98.
49.
Ibid., p. 45.
50.
Ibid., p. 48.
51.
Smith and Zepp, Search for the Beloved Community.
52.
Lischer, The Preacher King.
53.
Ibid., p. 232.
54.
Ibid.
55.
Ibid.
56.
Walton, The Political Philosophy…, p. 99.
57.
Ibid., p. 96.
58.
Ibid., p. 109.
59.
Ibid., p. 105.
60.
Ibid., p. 98.
61.
Charles and Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press, 1985), Robert Loevy, The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law That Ended Segregation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997) and Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford, 1990).
62.
Hanes Walton, Jr., When the Marching Stopped: The Politics of Civil Rights Regulatory Agencies (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988): Chap. 2 “The Institutionalization of the Civil Rights Revolution”.
63.
Ibid., p. 81.
64.
Ibid., p. 119.
65.
Ibid., p. 121.
66.
In the Reagan administration African Americans were recruited and made a part of the anti-civil rights coalition. Those recruited included Clarence Pendleton appointed chair of the Civil Rights Commission, Clarence Thomas, chair of EEOC and subsequently a justice of the Supreme Court, and the economists Thomas Sowell and Walter Williams. Once recruited Walton writes, “They were given funds, access to leading white conservative magazines, publishers and television and radio shows to promote their philosophies. Suddenly, they were everywhere. Overnight, they were challenging the black civil rights leaders … present[ing] a unified frontal assault on the efforts to effectively enforce civil rights laws.” Ibid., pp. 72–73.
67.
Ibid., p. 178.
68.
Ibid., p. 187.
69.
Ibid., p. 179.
70.
Ibid.
71.
Hanes Walton, Jr. and Robert C. Smith, American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom (New York: Longman): 254.
72.
Hanes Walton, Jr. et al. “An Examination of the Civil Rights Regulatory Agenda of the Bush Administration” Urban League Review 14(1990): 1.
73.
Walton and Smith, American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom, p. 253.
74.
Ibid., p. 254.
75.
The Obama administration increased the budget and staffing of civil rights enforcement agencies; in its first year the budget was increased by 18 percent. The Justice Department also in 2009 issued a memorandum to all federal agencies “urging more aggressive enforcement of regulations that forbid recipients of taxpayer money from policies that have a disparate impact on minorities”. See Hanes Walton Jr., Robert C. Smith and Sherri Wallace, American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom, 8th edition (New York: Routledge, 2017):287. See also Charlie Savage “Justice Department to Recharge Enforcement of Civil Rights”, New York Times, September 1, 2009.
76.
Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn Neckerman “We’d Love to Hire Them But … The Meaning of Race for Employers” in Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (eds.) The Urban Underclass (Washington: The Urban Institute, 1991), Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan “Are Brendan and Emily More Employable Than Jamal and Lakisha: A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination” American Economic Review 94(2004): 991–1013, S. Michael Gaddis “Discrimination in the Credential Society: An Audit Study of Race and College Selectivity in the Job Market” Social Forces 93(2015): 445–79 and Devah Pager “The Sociology of Discrimination in Employment, Credit and Consumer Markets” Annual Review of Sociology 34(2008): 181–209.
77.
Paula McClain suggests that Walton’s use of the analysis of documents as a methodology may be a result of his taking courses at Howard with Merze Tate, the distinguished diplomatic historian who made extensive use of document analysis in her research. See McClain “From Ralph Johnson Bunche to Hanes Walton, Jr.”, Hanes Walton Memorial Lecture, University of Michigan , Center for Political Studies, November 12, 2015 (For a video of the lecture see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=). The seminal work using the correspondence of African American diplomats is James Padgett “Ministers to Liberia and Their Diplomacy” Journal of Negro History 22(1957): 50–92 and Padgett “Diplomats to Haiti and Their Correspondence” Journal of Negro History 25(1940): 265–30. On Tate, the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in political science, see Barbara Savage “Professor Merze Tate: Diplomatic Historian, Cosmopolitan”, paper prepared for presentation at the National Museum of African American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, May 21, 2016. Walton’s earliest use of diplomatic correspondence is Walton et al. “Henry Highland Garnett Revisited via His Diplomatic Correspondence” Journal of Negro History 53(1983): 80–92.
78.
Hanes Walton, Jr. Black Women at the United Nations: A Theoretical Model and the Documents (San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1995): 43.
79.
The most famous case of protest by a black UN delegate occurred during the Nixon administration when Michigan Congressman Charles Diggs resigned to protest a US vote supporting apartheid in South Africa.
80.
Ibid.
81.
Ibid., p. 44.
82.
Ibid., p. 41.
83.
Ibid.
84.
Ibid.
85.
Quoted in Gary Kremer, J. Milton Turner and the Promise of America: The Public Life of a Post-Civil War Black Leader (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1991): 53.
86.
See Walton et al. “Henry Highland Garnett Revisited Via His Diplomatic Correspondence”.
87.
Hanes Walton, Jr., James Rosser and Robert Louis Stevenson, Liberian Politics: The Portrait by African Diplomat J. Milton Turner (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2002): 5.
88.
Ibid.
89.
William Moses, Alexander Crummell: A Study and Civilization and Discontent (New York: Oxford, 1969).
90.
For a novel account of slavery in Liberia see the story by the African American journalist George Schuyler, Slaves Today: A Story of Liberia (Baltimore, MD: McGrath, 1931).
91.
Walton, Rosser and Stevenson, Liberian Politics, p. 22.
92.
Ibid.
93.
Ibid., p. 62.
94.
Ibid., p. 358.
95.
Elliott Skinner, African Americans and U.S. Foreign Policy toward Africa, 1850–1924 (Washington: Howard University Press, 1992): 319.
96.
Hanes Walton, Jr., James Rosser and Robert Louis Stevenson, The African Foreign Policy of Secretary of State Henry Kissinger: A Documentary Analysis (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007).
97.
Ibid., p. 267.
98.
Ibid., p. 5.
99.
Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford, 1993).
100.
Walton, Rosser and Stevenson, The Africa Policy of Secretary of State…
101.
Ibid., p. 81.
102.
Ibid., p. 290.
103.
Examples of such readers include Harry Bailey, Jr. Negro Politics in America (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1967), David Greenberg, Neal Milner and David Olson (eds.) Black Politics: The Inevitability of Conflict (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), Stephen Herzog (ed.) Minority Group Politics (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971) and Lenneal Henderson (ed.) Black Political Life in the United States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing, 1972). For Walton’s analysis of the black politics readers, see Walton, Leslie McLemore and C. Vernon Gray “Black Politics: View from the Readers” American Politics Quarterly 12(1973):139–44.
104.
Hanes Walton, Jr., Black Politics: A Theoretical and Structural Analysis (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1972): xxi.
105.
Ibid., p. 82.
106.
Ibid.
107.
Frederick Wirt, “Review of Black Politics: A Theoretical and Structural Analysis”, Journal of Negro Education 50(1973): 99.
108.
Ronald Walters , “Review of Black Politics: A Theoretical and Structural Analysis”, Black Books Bulletin, March, 1974, pp. 69–70.
109.
Ronald Walters , “Review of Black Politics: A Theoretical and Structural Analysis”, Journal of Negro Education 43(1974): 528–30.
110.
See the reviews by Harry Holloway, Journal of Politics 35(1973): 234–36, Carolyn Sue Williams, American Political Science Review 70(1976): 1317–18 and C. Vernon Gray, Publius 4(1974): 137–38.
111.
Nancy Weiss, “Review of Black Politics: A Theoretical and Structural Analysis” Journal of American History 59(1972): 778–79.
112.
Hanes Walton, Jr. and Robert C. Smith, American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom (New York: Longman, 2000): xvii.
113.
Ibid.
114.
Herbert Aptheker (ed.) A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 1 (New York: Citadel Press, 1967): 1.
115.
Hanes Walton, Jr. “Crossover Voting Behavior: African American Senate Elections”, ND (PFA).
116.
Hanes Walton, Jr. “The Recent Literature of Black Politics”, PS: Political Science & Politics 18(1985): 769–80; “The Current Literature of Black Politics” National Political Science Review 2(1988): 152–68; “The Pioneering Books on Black Politics and the Political Science Community 1903–1965”, National Political Science Review 2(1989): 196–208 and “The Literature of African American Politics: The Decade of the Nineties” Politics & Policy, December, 2011, pp. 753–82.
117.
Hanes Walton’ Jr., The Study and Analysis of Black Politics: A Bibliography (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1973): xv.
118.
Walton, “The Recent Literature of Black Politics”, p. 769.
119.
Walton, The Study and Analysis of Black Politics, p. xiii.
120.
Walton, “The Recent Literature of Black Politics”, p. 767.
121.
Ibid.
122.
Ibid., p. 770.
123.
Ibid.
124.
Ibid., p. 769.
125.
Ibid.
126.
Walton, “The Current Literature of Black Politics”, p. 152.
127.
Ibid., pp. 153–54.
128.
The volume referred to is Franklin Jones et al., Readings in American Political Issues (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1987).
129.
Walton, “The Pioneering Books on Black Politics”, p. 196.
130.
The books referred to are Harold Gosnell, Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935, 1967) and James Q. Wilson , Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1960).
131.
For Walton’s extended critique of Wilson’s work in relationship to Gosnell’s see “The Problem of Preconceived Perceptions in Black Urban Politics” National Political Science Review 3(1992): 217–29.
132.
Walton, The Literature on African American Politics: The Decade of the Nineties”.
133.
Hanes Walton, Jr., Joseph McCormick and Cheryl Miller, “Race and Political Science: The Dual Traditions of Race Relations Politics and African American Politics” in James Farr, John Dryzek and Stephen Leonard (eds.) Political Science in History: Research Programs and Political Traditions (New York: Cambridge Press, 1995). For a history of the discipline that reaches similar conclusions to Walton and his colleagues, see Rogers Smith “The Puzzling Place of Race in Political Science” PS: Politics and Political Science 37(2000): 41–45. See also Donald Matthews “Political Science Research on Race Relations” in Irwin Katz and Patricia Gurin (eds.) Race and the Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 1969).
134.
Walton, “The Problem of Preconceived Perceptions in Black Urban Politics”, p. 208.
135.
Walton, McCormick and Miller “Race and Political Science”, p. 158.
136.
Ibid., p. 150.
137.
Ibid.
138.
At the 1991 NCOBPS conference this writer organized two panels assessing the extent to which Walton’s work reflected a black perspective. See Robert C. Smith, “The ‘Black’ Politics of Hanes Walton, Jr.”. Paper prepared for presentation at the 1991 annual meeting of the National Conference of Black Political Scientists, March 13–17, Jackson, Mississippi. See also the papers presented by David Covin “The ‘Black’ Politics of Hanes Walton, Jr.” and Joseph McCormick “Hanes Walton, Jr.: “Is There Anything There That’s Black, and If So What”.
139.
Hanes Walton, Jr. “The Political Science Educational Philosophy of Ralph Bunche” Journal of Negro Education 73(2004): 152.
140.
Walton, McCormick and Miller, “Race and Political Science”, pp. 166–67.
141.
Hanes Walton, Jr “ Foreword”, Jeffrey Elliot(ed.) Black Voices in American Politics (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich, 1986): xi.
142.
Hanes Walton, Jr. and Joseph McCormick “The Study of African American Politics as Social Danger: Clues from the Disciplinary Journals” National Political Science Review 6(1997): 230.
143.
Ibid.
144.
Ibid., p. 241.
145.
Ibid.
146.
Ibid.
147.
See Paula McClain et al. “Race, Power and Knowledge: Tracing the Roots of Exclusion in the Development of Political Science in the United States” Politics, Groups and Identities 4(2006): 467–82, Harwood McClerking and Ray Block “Say Our Name (and say it right): Expanding Walton et al. On the Evolution of Race in Political Science” Research and Politics, April, 2006, pp. 1–8 and McClerking and Tasha Philpot “Struggling to Be Noticed: The Civil Rights Movement as an Academic Agenda Setter” PS: Political Science and Politics 26(1985): 813–17.
148.
Walton, “The Political Science Educational Philosophy of Ralph Bunche”, p. 156.
149.
Ibid.
150.
Ibid.
151.
Hanes Walton, Jr., “Ralph Bunche Minus African American Politics, review of Benjamin Rivlin (ed.) Ralph Bunche and His Times” National Political Science Review 4(1994): 320.
152.
Hanes Walton, Jr. and Robert C. Smith “The Race Variable and the American Political Science Association’s State of the Discipline Reports and Books, 1907–2002”. in Wilbur Rich (ed.) African American Perspectives on Political Science (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007).
153.
Walton “The Political Science Educational Philosophy of Ralph Bunche”, p. 151.
154.
Ibid.
155.
Ibid.
156.
Robert Dahl “The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to A Successful Protest” American Political Science Review 55(1961): 767.
157.
Mack Jones “Scientific Method, Value Judgment and the Black Predicament in the U. S.” Review of Black Political Economy 7(1976): 9–23, reprinted in Jones Knowledge, Power and Black Politic (Albany: SUNY Press, 2014).
158.
Cook, “Foreword”, p. xxxv.
159.
Ibid., p. xv.
160.
Ibid., p. xviii.
161.
Ibid.
162.
Hanes Walton, Jr., Invisible Politics: Black Political Behavior (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985): xix.
163.
William Nelson, “Reader’s Report, Invisible Politics, State University of New York Press, ND (PFA).
164.
The National Black Election Study (NBES) is a landmark in the study of black political behavior. It was the largest national survey specifically designed to study the attitudes and behavior of African Americans. The survey was conducted in 1884 and 1988 by the Program for Research on Black Americans at the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research. Dozens of scholarly papers and articles and three books by African American scholars were published based on the NBES, which made important contributions to an empirically sound understanding of black political behavior. Walton was a member of the advisory board for the design and conduct of the survey. The three books based on the NBES are Patricia Gurin, Shirley Hatchett and James Jackson, Hope and Independence: Blacks’ Response to Electoral Politics (New York: Russell Sage, 1989), Michael Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African American Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995) and Katherine Tate, From Protest to Politics: The New Black Voter in American Elections (Cambridge: Harvard, 1994).
165.
Walton, Invisible Politics, p. 12.
166.
Ibid., pp. 12–13.
167.
Ibid., p. 3.
168.
Ibid.
169.
David Garrow, “Review of Invisible Politics”, South Atlantic Quarterly 3(1986): 85.
170.
Ibid.
171.
John Kirby, “Review of Invisible Politics”, Georgia Historical Quarterly 60(1986): 174.
172.
Renando Holland “Review of Invisible Politics”, Journal of Politics 48(1985): 487.
173.
Daniel Brantley “Review of Invisible Politics”, Phylon 48(187): 99.
174.
Walton, Invisible Politics, pp. 18–19.
175.
In subsequent books Black Politics: A Linkage Analysis (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994) and African American Power and Politics: The Political Context Variable—especially the latter—Walton made some progress in the specification of the context variable and developing testable propositions. But overall this remains a major shortcoming of the book.
176.
McClain, “From Ralph Johnson Bunche to Hanes Walton, Jr”.
177.
Ibid.

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Smith, R.C. (2018). Black Politics. In: Hanes Walton, Jr.: Architect of the Black Science of Politics. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75571-7_2

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