Abstract
According to different estimates, there are 831 to 932 million hectares of salt affected soils – saline soils, saline-sodic soils and sodic soils. The measure of salinity is the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) and the measure of sodicity is the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) or the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Saline soils have ECe > 4 dS m−1 (decisiemens per meter) at 25° C and ESP < 15 (high soluble salts and low exchangeable Na+). Sodic soils have ECe < 4 dS m−1 and ESP > 15 (low soluble salts and high exchangeable Na+). Saline-sodic soils are characterized by ECe > 4 dS m−1 and ESP > 15 (both salts and exchangeable sodium are high). These soils mainly occur in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation to evapotranspiration ratio is low. These soils also develop in coastal regions because of the flooding of sea water, and in irrigated areas due to the rise of the groundwater table and in some impermeable soils of the humid regions due to lack of leaching. Salts adversely affect plant growth and crop yield. Crop failures are common occurrences although some plants may have some degree of tolerances. Salt tolerant crops can be grown in some low to moderately saline soils, but soil salinity may be so severe in some cases that cropping becomes impossible. Management of saline soils involves selecting salt tolerant crops, salt scraping , salt flushing , and leaching with irrigation and artificial drainage. Usually, chemical amendments are not necessary for the reclamation of saline soils, but chemical treatment is needed prior to leaching for managing sodic soils. Substances that contain soluble calcium such as gypsum and CaCl2, and sulfuric acid or substances that produce sulfuric acid after application to soil such as sulfur, pyrite , ferrous sulfate, aluminium sulfate etc. are used as amendments for sodic soils. Phytoremediation of sodic soils has also been successful on some occasions.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdelgawad A, Arslan A, Awad F, Kadouri F (2004) Deep plowing management practice for increasing yield and water use efficiency of vetch, cotton, wheat and intensified corn using saline and non-saline irrigation water. Proceedings of the 55th IEC Meeting of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), September 9–10, 2004, Moscow, Russia
Agar AI (2011) Reclamation of saline and sodic soil by using divided doses of phosphogypsum in cultivated condition. Afr J Agric Res 6(18):4243–4252
Akhter J, Mahmood K, Malik KA, Ahmed S, Murray R (2003) Amelioration of a saline sodic soil through cultivation of a salt-tolerant grass Leptochloafusca. Environ Conserv 30:168–174
Akramkhanov A, Sommer R, Martius C, Hendrickx JMH, Vlek PLG (2008) Comparison and sensitivity of measurement techniques for spatial distribution of soil salinity. Irrig Drain Syst 22:115–126
Amezketa E, Aragüés R, Gazol R (2005) Efficiency of Sulfuric Acid, Mined Gypsum, and Two Gypsum By-Products in Soil Crusting Prevention and Sodic Soil Reclamation. Agronomy Journal 97(3):983–989
Amiri B, Assareh MH, Jafari M, Rasuoli B, Arzani B, Jafari AA (2010) Effect of salinity on growth, ion content and water status of glasswort (Salicorniaherbacea L.) Caspian J Env Sci 8(1):79–87
Anon (2015) Trees and shrubs that tolerate saline soils and salt spray drift. Publication 430–031, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, www.ext.vt.edu
Ansari AA, Ismail SA (2008) Biodynamic management in sodic soils. J Soil Nature 2(2):01–04
Ashraf M (2001) Relationships between growth and gas exchange characteristics in some salt-tolerant amphidiploid Brassica species in relation to their diploid parents. Environ Exp Bot 45:155–163
Ashraf M (2009) Biotechnological approach of improving plant salt tolerance using antioxidants as markers. Biotech Adv 27:84–93
Aslam M, Prathapar SA (2006). Strategies to mitigate secondary salinization in the Indus Basin of Pakistan: A Selective Review. Research Report 97. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka
Ayers RS, Westcot DW (1985) Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Azizi M, Chehrazi M, Zahedi SM (2011) Effects of salinity stress on germination and early growth of sweet William (Dianthus barbatus). Asian J Agric Sci 3(6):453–458
Balibrea ME, Cuartero J, Bolarín MC, Pérez-Alfocea F (2003) Activities during fruit development of Lycopersicon genotypes differing in tolerance salinity. Physiol Plant 118:38–46
Barros MFC, Fontes MPF, Alvarez VVH, Ruiz HA (2004) Reclamation of salt-affected soils in Northeast Brazil with application of mined gypsum and limestone. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agricola e Ambiental 8(1):59–64
Barry GA, Rayment GE, Jeffery AJ, Price AM (2001) Changes in cane soil properties from application of sugar mill by-products. Proceeding Conference of the Australian Society of Sugarcane Technology. Mackay, Queensland
Bauder JW, Brock TA (2001) Irrigation water quality, soil amendment, and crop effects on sodium leaching. Arid Land Res Manag 15:101–113
Bayuelo-Jiménez JS, Debouck GD, Lynch JP (2003) Growth, gas exchange, water relations, and ion composition of Phaseolus species grown under saline conditions. Field Crop Res 80:207–222
Botia P, Navarro JM, Cerda A, Martinez V (2005) Yield and fruit quality of two melon cultivars irrigated with saline water at different stages of development. Eur J Agron 23:243–253
Chaum S, Pokasombat Y, Kirdmanee C (2011) Remediation of salt affected soil by gypsum and farmyard manure−importance for the production of jasmine rice. Aust J Crop Sci 5:458–465
Chen K, Jiao JJ (2008) Metal concentrations and mobility in marine sediment and groundwater in coastal reclamation areas: a case study in Shenzhen, China. Environ Pollut 151(3):576–584
Chengrui M, Dregne HE (2001) Silt and the future development of China’s Yellow River. Geogr J 167:7–22
Chinnusamy V, Jagendorf A, Zhu JK (2005) Understanding and improving salt tolerance in plants. Crop Sci 45:437–448
Corwin DL, Rhoades JD, Simunek J (2007) Leaching requirement for soil salinity control: steady-state versus transient models. Agric Water Manag 9:65–180
CSIRO (2000) Management of dryland salinity: future strategic directions. Primary Industries Report Series 78, CSIRO Publishing, PO Box 1139 (150 Oxford Street), Collingwood, Australia
Cui J, Liu C, Li Z, Wang L, Chen X, Ye Z, Fang C (2012) Long-term changes in topsoil chemical properties under centuries of cultivation after reclamation of coastal wetlands in the Yangtze Estuary, China. Soil Tillage Res 123:50–60
del Amor FM, Martinez V, Cerda A (2001) Salt tolerance of tomato plants as affected by stage of plant development. Hort Sci 36:1260–1263
Dhanapackiam S, Ilyas MHM (2010) Effect of salinity on chlorophyll and carbohydrate contents of Sesbania grandiflora seedlings. Indian J Sci Technol 3(1):64–66
Dong H (2012) Technology and field management for controlling soil salinity effects on cotton. AJCS 6(2):333–341
Elsayed MT, Babiker MH, Abdelmalik ME, Mukhtar ON, Montange D (2008) Impact of filter mud application on the germination of sugarcane and small-seeded plants and on soil and sugarcane nitrogen contents. Bioresour Technol 99:4164–4168
EPA (2004) Guidelines for Water Reuse, September 2004, EPA/625/R-04/108, Environment Protection Agency, USA
Essa TA (2002) Effect of salinity stress on growth and nutrient composition of three soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) Cultivars. J Agron Crop Sci 188(2):86–93
Ewase ASS, Omran S, El-Sherif S, Tawfik N (2013) Effect of salinity stress on coriander (Coriandrum sativum) seeds germination and plant growth. Egypt Acad J BiolSci 4(1):1–7
Falstad J (2000) Soil condition. transplant status in Burger Draw. Billings Gazette. Prepared by D.G. Steward Page. Burger Draw Comments and Recommendations. 6/06/00
FAO (2002) Global network on integrated soil management for sustainable use of salt-affected soils. FAO Land and Plant Nutrition Management Services, Rome, Italy
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) (2006) TerraSTAT database. At: <http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/terrastat/>
Flagella Z, Cantore V, Giuliani MM, Tarantio E, De Caro A (2002) Crop salt tolerance physiological, yield and quality aspects. Rec Res Dev Plant Biol 2:155–186
Garg N, Singla R (2004) Growth, photosynthesis, nodule nitrogen and carbon fixation in the chickpea cultivars under salt stress. Braz J Plant Physiol 16(3):137–146
Garg VK, Malhotra S (2008) Response of Nigella sativa L. to fertilizers under sodic soil condition. J Med Aromat Plant Sci 30:122–125
Ghoulam C, Foursy A, Fares K (2002) Effects of salt stress on growth, inorganic ions and proline accumulation in relation to osmotic adjustment in five sugar beet cultivars. Environ Exp Bot 47:39–50
Gomez JM, Jimenz A, Olmas E, Sevilla F (2004) Location and effects of long-term NaCl stress on superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase isoenzymes of pea (Pisum sativum cv. Puget) chloroplasts. J Exp Bot 55:119–130
Gregory PJ, Nortcliff S (2013) Soil conditions and plant growth. Wiley Blackwell, New York
Gupta RK, Abrol IP (2000) Salinity build-up and changes in the rice-wheat system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Exp Agric 36:273–284
Hadley D (2009) Land use and the coastal zone. Land Use Policy 26S:S198–S203
Hanay A, Büyüksönmez F, Kızıloglu FM, Canbolat MY (2004) Reclamation of saline-sodic soils with gypsum and MSW compost. Compos Sci Utili 12:175–179
Hanson BR, May DM (2004) Effect of subsurface drip irrigation on processing tomato yield, water table depth, soil salinity and profitability. Ag Water Mgt 68:1–17
Haque SA (2006) Salinity problems and crop production in coastal regions of Bangladesh. Pak J Bot 38(5):1359–1365
Hernandez JA, Ferrer MA, Jimenez A, Barcelo AR, Sevilla F (2001) Antioxidant systems and O2−/H2O2 production in the apoplast of pea leaves. Its relation with salt-induced necrotic lesions in minor veins. Plant Physiol 127:817–831
Higbie SM, Wang F, McD SJ, Sterling TM, Lindemann WC, Hughs E, Zhang J (2010) Physiological response to salt (NaCl) stress in selected cultivated tetraploid cottons. Int. J Agron 1:1–12
Horneck DA, Ellsworth JW, Hopkins BG, Sullivan DM, Stevens RG (2007) Managing salt-affected soils for crop production. A Pacific Northwest Extension publication Oregon State University, University of Idaho, Washington State University
Hussain N, Hassan G, Arshadullah M, Mujeeb F (2001) Evaluation of amendments for the improvement of physical properties of sodic soil. Int J Agric Biol 3:319–322
Jamali LA, Ibupoto KA, Chattah SH (2012) Effects of salt leaching on soil under different irrigation amounts and intervals. Sixteenth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC 16 2012, Istanbul, Turkey
Jamil A, Riaz S, Ashraf M, Foolad MR (2011) Gene expression profiling of plants under salt stress. Crit Rev Plant Sci 30(5):435–458
Joachim HJR, Makoi P, Ndakidemi A (2007) Reclamation of sodic soils in northern Tanzania, using locally available organic and inorganic resources. African J Biotech 6(16):1926–1931
Kang DJ, Endo A, Seo YJ (2013) Effect of soil scraping on the reclamation of tsunami-damage paddy soil. J crop Sci. Biotech 16(3):219–223
Kara T, Willardson LS (2006) Leaching requirements to prevent soil salinization. J Applied Sci 6(7):1481–1489
Karlberg L (2005) Irrigation with saline water using low-cost drip-irrigation systems in sub-Saharan Africa. PhD Thesis, KTH Architecture and the built environment, Stockholm, Sweden
Khan MA, Duke NC (2001) Halophytes- a resource for the future. Wetl Ecol Manag 6:455–456
Khattak RA, Khan RJ (2004) Evaluation, reclamation and management of saline sodic soils in Kohat division. Final Report. Deptartment of Soil and Environmental Sciences, NWFP Agriculture University Peshawar. National Drainage Programme (NDP), Govt of Pakistan
Khorsandi F, Anagholi A (2009) Reproductive compensation of cotton after salt stress relief at different growth stages. J Agron Crop Sci 195:278–283
Khoshgoftarmanesh AH, Shariatmadari H, Vakil R (2003) Reclamation of saline soils by leaching and barley production. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 34(19–20):2875–2883
Lie HJ, Cho CH, Lee S, Kim ES, Koo BJ, Noh JH (2008) Changes in marine environment by a large coastal development of the Saemangeum Reclamation Project in Korea. Ocean and. Polar Res 30(4):475–484
Lobell DB, Ortiz-Monsterio JI, Gurrola FC, Valenzuuela L (2007) Identification of saline soils with multiyear remote sensing of crop yields. Soil Sci Soc Am J 71:777–783
Maghsoudi AM, Maghsoudi K (2008) Salt stress effect on respiration and growth of germinated seeds of different Wheat (Triticum aesativum L.) cultivars. World J Agri Sci 4(3):351–358
Mansour MM (2000) Nitrogen containing compounds and adaptation of plants to salinity stress. Biol Plant 43:491–500
Martinez-Beltran J, Manzur CL (2005) Overview of salinity problems in the world and FAO strategies to address the problem. Proceedings of the International Salinity Forum, April 2005, Riverside, California
Metternicht GI, Zinck JA (2003) Remote sensing of soil salinity: potentials and constraints. Remote Sens Environ 85:1–20
Mohamed K, Abdel-Fattah (2012) Role of gypsum and compost in reclaiming saline-sodic soils. IOSR J Agric Vet Sci 1(3):30–38
Moradi P, Zavareh M (2013) Effects of salinity on germination and early seedling growth of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars. Intl J Farm Alli Sci 2(3):70–74
Mudgal V, Madaan N, Mudgal A, Mishra S (2009) Changes in growth and metabolic profile of Chickpea under salt stress. J Appl Biosci 23:1436–1446
Mudgal V, Madaan N, Mudgal A, Singh A, Kumar P (2010) Comparative study of the effects of salinity on plant growth, nodulation, and Legheamoglobin Content in Kabuli and Desi Cultivars of Cicer arietinum (L.). KBM. J Biol 1:1–4
Muhammad D, Khattak RA (2009) Growth and nutrient concentrations of maize in pressmud treated saline-sodic soils. Soil Environ 28(2):145–155
Munns R (2005) Genes and salt tolerance: bringing them together. Tansley rev. New Phytol 167:645–663
Naseri AA, Rycroft D (2002) Effect of swelling and overburden weight on hydraulic conductivity of a restructured saline sodic clay. Paper presented at the 17th World Congress of Soil Science, 14–21 August 2002, Bangkok, Thailand
Naseri R, Emami T, Mirzaei A, Soleymanifard A (2012) Effect of salinity (sodium chloride) on germination and seedling growth of barley (Hordeum Vulgare vulgare L.) cultivars. Int J Agric Crop Sci 4(13):911–917
Nasser JY, Sholi C (2012) Effect of salt stress on seed germination, plant growth, photosynthesis and ion accumulation of four tomato cultivars. Am J Plant Physiol 7:269–275. American
Ondrasek G, Romic D, Rengel Z, Romic M, Zovko M (2009) Cadmium accumulation by muskmelon under salt stress in contaminated organic soil. Sci Tot Enviro 407:2175–2182
Oster JD, Grattan SR (2002) Drainage water reuse. Irrig Drain Syst 16:297–310
Oster JD, Wichelns D (2003) Economic and agronomic strategies to achieve sustainable irrigation. Irrig Sci 22:107–120
Parida AK, Das AB (2005) Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants. A review. Ecotox Environ Safety 60:324–349
Partha N, Sivasubramanian V (2006) Recovery of chemicals from pressmud- A sugar industry waste. Indian Chem Eng Section 48(3):160–163
Parvaiz A, Satyawati S (2008) Salt stress and phyto-biochemical responses of plants – a review. Plant Soil Environ 54:89–99
Patel BB, Patel Bharat B, Dave RS (2011) Studies on infiltration of saline–alkali soils of several parts of Mehsana and Patan districts of north Gujarat. J Appl Technol Environ Sanit 1(1):87–92
Pitman MG, Lauchli A (2002) Global impact of salinity and agricultural ecosystems. In: Lauchli A, Luttge U (eds) Salinity: environment – plants – molecules. Kluewer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
Prapagar K, Indraratne SP, Premanandharajah P (2012) Effect of soil amendments on reclamation of saline-Sodic soil. Trop Agric Res 23(2):168–176
Qadir M, Noble MD, Schubert S, Thomas RJ, Arslan A (2006) Salinity induced land degradation and its sustainable management: problems and prospects. Land Degrad Dev 17:661–676
Qadir M, Oster JD (2004) Crop and irrigation management strategies for saline-sodic soils and water aimed at environmentally sustainable agriculture. Sci Total Environ 323:1–19
Qadir M, Oster JD, Schubert S, Noble AD, Sahrawat KL (2007) Phytoremediation of sodic and saline-sodic soils. Adv Agron 96:197–247
Qadir M, Wichelns D, Raschid-Sally L, McCornick PG, Drechsel P, Bahri A, Minhas PS (2010) The challenges of wastewater irrigation in developing countries. Agric Water Manag 97:561–568
Qureshi AS, Qadir M, Heydari N, Turral H, Javadi A (2007) A review of management strategies for salt-prone land and water resources in Iran.International Water Management Institute, IWMI Working Paper 125, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Radi AA, Farghaly FA, Hamada AM (2013) Physiological and biochemical responses of salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive wheat and bean cultivars to salinity. J Biol Earth Sci 3(1):B72–B88
Rangaraj T, Somasundaram E, Amanullah MM, Thirumurgan V, Ramesh S, Ravi S (2007) Effect of Agro-industrial wastes on soil properties and yield of irrigated finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn) in coastal soil. Res J Agric Biol Sci 3(3):153–156
Rengasamy P (2006) World salinization with emphasis on Australia. J Exp Bot 57:1017–1023
Richards LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvements of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agriculture Handbook 60. USA
Romero-Aranda R, Soria T, Cuartero S (2001) Tomato plant-water uptake and plant-water relationships under saline growth conditions. Plant Sci 160:265–272
Sadeghi H (2010) The effects of different salinity levels on some important physiological characteristics of two wheat cultivars. 11th Iranian Crop Science Congress, Environmental Sciences research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Salehifar M, Torang A, Farzanfar M, Salehifar M (2010) Comparison of salinity stress effect on germination and seedling growth in 8 lines genotypes of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). 11th Iranian Crop Science Congress, Environmental Sciences research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehra, Iran
Santos CV, IP F˜a, Pinto GC, Oliveira H, Loureiro J (2002) Nutrient responses and glutamate and proline metabolism in sunflower plants and calli under Na2SO4 stress. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 165:366–372
Sarraf M (2004) Assessing the costs of environmental degradation in the Middle East and North Africa countries. Environment Strategy Notes, No. 9. Environment Department, World Bank, Washington, DC
Shirokova YI, Forkutsa I, Sharafutdinova N (2000) Use of electrical conductivity instead of soluble salts for soil salinity monitoring in Central Asia. Irrig Drain Syst 14:199–205
Shrivastava P, Kumar R (2015) Soil salinity: a serious environmental issue and plant growth promoting bacteria as one of the tools for its alleviation. Saudi J Biol Sci 22(2):123–131
Sival AA, Skaggs TH, Van Genuchten MT (2009) Reclamation of saline soils by partial ponding: simulations for different soils. Vadose Zone J 9(2):486–495
Soil Survey Staff (1993) Soil Survey Manual, Handbook 18, USDA, NRCS. US Gov Print Off, Washington, DC
Sun Y, Li X, Mander U, He Y, Jia Y, Ma Z, Guo W, Xin Z (2011) Effect of reclamation time and land use on soil properties in Changjiang River Estuary, China. Chin Geogr Sci 21(4):403–416
Tester M, Davenport R (2003) Na+ tolerance and Na+ transport in higher plants. Ann Bot 91:503–527
Tobe K, Li X, Omasa K (2002) Effects of sodium, magnesium and calcium salts on seed germination and radicle survival of a halophyte, Kalidium capsicum (Chenopodiaceae). Australian. J Botany 50:163–169
Tobe K, Zhang L, Omasa K (2003) Alleviatory effects of calcium on the toxicity of sodium, potassium and magnesium chlorides to seed germination in three non- halophytes. Seed Sci Res 13:47–54
USDA NRCS (2010) Plants for saline to sodic soil conditions. Technical Note: Plant Materials 9A, USDA-NRCS, Salt Lake City, Utah
USDA-NRCS (2011) Crop tolerance and yield potential of selected crops as influenced by irrigation water salinity (ECw) or soil salinity (ECe). USDA-NRCS, Washington, DC Gregory PJ, Nortcliff S (2012) Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. Blackwell-Wiley, London, UK
Van Breemen N, Burman P (2002) Soil formation, 2nd edn. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dodrecht
Wang L, Coles N, Wu C, Wu J (2014) Effect of long-term reclamation on soil properties on a coastal plain, Southeast China. J Coast Res 30(4):661–669
Wilson C, Lesch SM, Grieve CM (2000) Growth stage modulates salinity tolerance of New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides, Pall) and Red Orach (Atriplex hortensis L). Annals Bot 85:501–509
Yadav S, Irfan M, Ahmad A, Hayat S (2011) Causes of salinity and plant manifestations to salt stress: a review. J Environ Biol 32:667–685
Yensen NP (2008) Halophyte uses for the twenty-first century. In: Khan MA, Weber DJ (eds) Ecophysiology of high salinity tolerant plants. Springer, Dordrecht
Zeinolabedin J (2012) The effects of salt stress on plant growth. Tech J Eng Appl Sci (TJEAS) 2(1):7–10
Zhu JK (2001) Plant salt tolerance. Trends Plant Sci 6(2):66–71
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Osman, K.T. (2018). Saline and Sodic Soils. In: Management of Soil Problems. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75527-4_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75527-4_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-75525-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-75527-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)