Abstract
“‘I can no longer hold me patient:’ Margaret, Anger, and Political Voice in Richard III.”
Although some scholars have neglected Queen Margaret’s role in Richard III, and while theater and film productions often leave her out or depict her as a ranting hag, this chapter argues that Margaret is a crucial figure in the play, who signals the demise of Richard and unravels his narrative through her anger. While angry women are often ignored or condemned as morally inferior in the early modern period, Shakespeare neither ignores Queen Margaret nor condemns her. This chapter reexamines Margaret’s role in the play through the lens of her anger and argues that Shakespeare granted Margaret her moment when the configuration of patience and anger coalesce to give the queen her power and political voice in Richard III.
The role of women in Shakespeare’s history plays has been the focus of significant scholarly analysis. Some scholars have argued that the women are subordinate, insignificant cogs in the masculine machines of government and war, while others have granted that in Richard III, for example, Margaret, Anne, Elizabeth, and the Duchess do at least establish a community of women and do, indeed, have agency—as evidenced through their cursing. This chapter focuses on the power and significance of Queen Margaret’s role in Richard III with regard to her anger, which I propose is the engine that drives her appearance.
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Notes
- 1.
See Elizabeth H. Hageman, “Review: In Defense of Shakespeare’s Female Characters,” Shakespeare Quarterly 35.1, (1984): 126–28; Patricia-Ann Lee, “Reflections of Power: Margaret of Anjou and the Dark Side of Queenship,” Renaissance Quarterly 39.2, (1986): 183–217 for an overview of Margaret’s life and her political career. For a further discussion of Margaret, women, and Shakespeare’s history plays see, for example, Madonne M. Miner, “‘Neither mother, wife, nor England’s queen’: The roles of Women in Richard III,” in The Woman’s Part: Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, ed. Carolyn Lenz. (Urbana: Illinois University Press, 1980), 35–55; Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Brighton: Harvester, 1983); Phyllis Rackin, Stages of History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Martha A. Kurtz, “Rethinking Gender and Genre in the History Play,” Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 36.2 (1996): 267–87; Jean Howard and Phyllis Rackin, Engendering a Nation (London: Routledge, 1997); Nina S. Levine, Women’s Matters: Politics, Gender and Nation in Shakespeare’s Early History Plays (London: Associated University Presses, 1998); Kathryn Schwarz, “Fearful Simile: Stealing the Breech in Shakespeare’s Chronicle Plays,” Shakespeare Quarterly 49.2 (1998): 140–167; Jane Donawerth, “‘The issue of the Mother’s Body’: The Differences Feminist Criticism has made to Shakespeare’s Richard III,” Graven Image 4, (2002): 174–190: Jennifer C. Vaught, Masculinity and Emotion in Early Modern English Literature (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008). Vaught argues for the strength and integrity of Queen Isabel in Richard II.
- 2.
Shakespeare, King Lear, ed. R.A. Foakes, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2005), 2.2.460.
- 3.
Shakespeare, Othello, ed. E.A.J. Honigmann, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2006), 5.2.164–5.
- 4.
Through her anger, Emilia reveals the truth and by doing so undermines the gender politics that demand female silence and obedience. Isabella in Measure for Measure challenges Angelo’s attempted seduction and abuse of power, attacking him as a “proud,” “most ignorant” man “Dressed in a little brief authority,” ed. J.W. Lever, Arden 2nd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), 2.2.117–19.
- 5.
Shakespeare, The Winter’s Tale, ed. John Pitcher, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 3.2.172.
- 6.
See also the Duchess of Gloucester in Richard II, who rebukes her husband, John of Gaunt’s reluctance to challenge the king, rejecting his “patience” as “pale, cold cowardice in noble breasts,” ed. Charles R. Forker, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2002), 1.2. 33–4; Tamora in Titus Andronicus ed. Jonathan Bate, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2006); Volumnia, “Anger’s my meat,” in Coriolanus, ed. Peter Holland, Arden 3rd Series (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 4.2.50.
- 7.
Carol Zisowitz Stearns, Peter N. Stearns, Anger: The Struggle for Emotional Control in America’s History (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986), 12.
- 8.
The terms “anger” and “wrath” are fairly similar in meaning. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, wrath is “vehement or violent anger,” and “resentment;” both are associated with “indignation.”
- 9.
Before this line comes “Therefore, putting away falsehood, let everyone speak the truth with his neighbor, for we are members one of another” (4:25). Of course, recall God’s anger and the great deluge in “Genesis”, or Jesus’s wrath when he drives the moneychangers from the temple in Matthew, The New Oxford Annotated Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 21:12–13.
- 10.
Aristotle, The Ethics of Aristotle, trans. J.A.K. Thomson (New York: Penguin, 1976), 161.
- 11.
Aristotle, Ethics, 161.
- 12.
“For he who is excited by anger seems to turn away from reason with a certain pain and unconscious contradiction.” Marcus Aurelius, The Meditations, trans. George Lang (New York; Dover, 1997), 9–10; Seneca, Complete Works of Lucius Annaeus Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge, trans. Robert A. Kaster and Martha C. Nussbaum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 14.
- 13.
John Cassian, “Conferences” and “The Institutes,” in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, trans. Edward C.S. Gibson (Oxford, 1894), vol. II, 42.
- 14.
Pope Gregory I, S. Gregorii Magni Opera: Moralia in Job, ed. Marc Adriaen (Turnhout: Brepols, 1979), 5.33; the Moralia was written between 578–95. Martin of Braga, De Ira, 6.8; quoted in Lester Little, “Anger in Monastic Curses,” in Anger’s Past; Matthew 21:12.
- 15.
Saint Augustine, De civitate Dei, Concerning the City of God Against Pagans, trans. Henry Bettenson (New York: Penguin, 2003), 14–15.
- 16.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, ed. Daniel J. Sullivan (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannia, 1952), 1436, 4.
- 17.
See Richard Barton, “‘Zealous Anger’ and the Renegotiation of Aristocratic Relationships in Eleventh and Twelfth-Century France,” 169 and Stephen D. White, “The Politics of Anger,” both in Anger’s Past: The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages, ed. Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), 153–170.
- 18.
For a sample of writings on anger, see Anger’s Past; Gwynne Kennedy, Just Anger: Representing Women’s Anger in Early Modern England (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001); William V. Harris, Restraining Rage: the Ideology of Anger Control in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Reading the Early Modern Passions: Essays in the Cultural History of Emotions, eds. Gail Kern Paster, Katherine Rowe, Mary Floyd-Wilson (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Peter Burke, “Is There a Cultural History of the Emotions?,” in Representing Emotion: New Connections in the Histories of Art, Music and Medicine, eds. Penelope Gouk and Helen Hills (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 35– 47; Daniel Gross, The Secret History of Emotion: from Aristotle’s Rhetoric to Modern Brain Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); Richard Strier, The Unrepentant Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Jennifer C. Vaught, Masculinity and Emotion; Susan Broomhall, Ordering Emotion in Europe, 1100–1800 (Leiden: Brill, 2015); Susan Broomhall, Authority, Gender, and Emotion in Late Medieval and Earl Modern England (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015); Susan Broomhall, ed., Gender and Emotions in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Destroying Order, Structuring Disorder (Surrey, England: Ashgate, 2015).
- 19.
Leon Battista Alberti, The Family in Renaissance Florence, trans. Renee Neu Watkins (Columbia: S. Carolina University Press, 1969), 133.
- 20.
Anon., Certain Sermons or Homilies (1547) and A Homily Against Disobedience and Wilful Rebellion (1570), ed. Ronald B. Bond (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 194.
- 21.
John Downame, A Treatise of Anger. VVherein is shewed the lawfull, laudable, and necessarie vse of iust and holy Anger, and what is required thereunto (London: William Welby, 1609), 19.
- 22.
Downame, A Treatise of Anger, 20.
- 23.
Edward Reynolds, A Treatise of the Passions and the Faculties of the Soul of Man (1640), intro. Margaret Lee Wiley (Gainesville, Florida: Scholar’s Facsimiles & Reprints, 1971), 323. Reynolds wrote his text in 1625. See also Francis Bacon’s essay on anger from 1625 in which he writes, “Lastly, opinion of the touch of a man’s reputations doth multiply and sharpen anger.” Francis Bacon, A Selection of his Works, ed. Sidney Warhaft (New York: Odyssey, 1965), 189.
- 24.
Marcus Aurelius, trans. Lang, 10; Proverbs, 21:19.
- 25.
A Homily Against Disobedience, 195.
- 26.
Pierre de la Primaudaye, The French Academy (1586) (London: 1618), 129.
- 27.
Helkiah Crooke, Microcosmographia: A Description of the Body of Man, Together with the Controversies and Figures Thereto Belonging (London, 1616), 272.
- 28.
Juan Luis Vives, The Education of a Christian Woman, trans. Charles Fantazzi (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2000), 186.
- 29.
Thomas Wilson, The Art of Rhetorique (London, 1585), 130.
- 30.
The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 542.
- 31.
Montaigne, trans. Frame, 543.
- 32.
Montaigne, trans. Frame, 545.
- 33.
William Camden, “R.N.,” To the Reader, William Camden’s The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth, Late Queen of England, 3rd edition. (London, 1657), A32, 7.
- 34.
The Letters and Epigrams of Sir John Harington Together with the Private Life, ed. Norman McClure (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1930), 362.
- 35.
Harington, Letters and Epigrams, 22.
- 36.
John Stubbs’s Gaping Gulf with Letters and Other Relevant Document, ed., Lloyd E. Berry (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1968).
- 37.
See also John Neale, Elizabeth I and her Parliaments: 1559–81 (New York: Norton, 1966).
- 38.
Elizabeth I: Collected Works, eds. Leah S. Marcus, Janel Mueller, Mary Beth Rose (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2000), 334.
- 39.
Elizabeth I: Collected Works, 334.
- 40.
Elizabeth I: Collected Works, 332–33.
- 41.
Elizabeth I: Collected Works, 335. See also Janet M. Green, “Queen Elizabeth I’s Latin Reply to the Polish Ambassador,” Sixteenth Century Journal vol. 31, 4 (2000): 987–1008.
- 42.
William Shakespeare, Richard III, ed. James R. Siemon (London: Bloomsbury, 2009), 1.3.65–66, 1.
- 43.
Lester Little, “Anger in Monastic Circles,” 9. See also Gerd Althoff, and Paul Hyams in Anger’s Past on the use of patience and clemency with regard to royal anger.
- 44.
Francis Bacon, A Selection of his Works, 189.
- 45.
According to Natalie Mears, Queenship and Discourse in the Elizabethan Realms, (Cambridge, 2005), 77–8, Queen Elizabeth used the suggested practice in two parliamentary speeches. See Thomas Elyot, The Castel of Helth (London, 1541), in which he advises that one should “think on the lesson” that Apollodorus apparently gave to Emperor Augustus: “before speaking or acting in anger, he should ‘recite in order all the letters of the A. B. C., and remove somewhat out of the place, that he is in, and seke occasion to be otherwyse occupied” (sig 64r). See Stephen Pender, “Subventing Disease: Anger, Passions, and the Non-naturals,” in Rhetorics of bodily disease and health in medieval and early modern England, ed. Jennifer C. Vaught. (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010), 193–218 for a further discussion of Elyot’s remedies. See also Hermione’s comment in The Winter’s Tale: “I must be patient till the heavens look / With an aspect more favorable” (2.1.106–7).
- 46.
Apropos of being righteously angry, there is also an anti-patience argument to be made. See Adriana, in Comedy of Errors who refuses to be patient: “There’s none but asses will be bridled so.” Shakespeare, The Comedy of Errors, ed. Kent Cartwright (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 2.1.14. See also Richard Streier’s discussion of anti-patience in The Unrepentant Renaissance, 46, 138.
- 47.
See King John, (4.3.32), “Sir, impatience hath privilege.” Both proverbs are in R. W. Dent, Shakespeare’s Proverbial Language: An Index (Berkeley: California University Press, 1981), P595.1.
- 48.
See Gina Bloom, Voice in Motion: Staging Gender, Shaping Sound (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). Bloom specifically makes this remark about the Duchess but then goes on to discuss the “material link between lament and curse that provides Margaret and the Duchess a robust model of agency” (92–3).
- 49.
It is true that Elizabeth’s anxiety about Richard reveals that she knows who he is. But the men around her quickly silence her, and when Margaret appears, Elizabeth also attacks the old queen.
- 50.
Certaine Sermons or Homilies, 194.
- 51.
Raphael Holinshed, The first (laste) volume of the chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Ireland (London, 1577), III, 936/1. See Little for further discussion of curses coming from Popes and the authority they carried. Richard Grafton, A Chronicle at large and mere history of the affayres of England (London, 1568), II, 119. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in popular beliefs in sixteenth and seventeenth century England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 604.
- 52.
Lester Little, Benedictine Maledictions: Liturgical Cursing in Romanesque France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 99. See Little for a discussion of the dilemmas the medieval church faced around cursing. Uncomfortable with the vindictive cursing in the Bible as well as its pagan associations, the Church tried to regulate the practice, sanctioning the Church’s “official” use of cursing as a “legitimate” “social and spiritual necessity,” while forbidding cursing by ordinary people.
- 53.
Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 32, 114–5.
- 54.
Foulke Robartes, The Revenue of the Gospel is Tythes (Cambridge, 1613), 79.
- 55.
See David Bevington, “‘Why should calamity be full of words?’ The Efficacy of Cursing in Richard III,” Iowa State Journal of Research 56.1 (1981) for a discussion of superstitions, fears, and prophesy; see also Rebecca Totaro, “Revolving this will teach thee how to curse:’ a Lesson in Sublunary Exhalation,” in Rhetorics of Bodily Disease and Health in Medieval and Early Modern England, ed. Jennifer C. Vaught. (Ashgate: Burlington, VT, 2010); Kenneth Gross, Shakespeare’s Noise (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001), for an analysis of cursing.
- 56.
The Duke of York’s curse is: “There, take the crown—and with the crown, my curse: / And in thy need such comfort come to thee / As now I reap at thy too cruel hand” (165–7) Shakespeare, 3 Henry VI, eds. John D. Cox and Eric Rasmussen (London: Bloomsbury, 2001), 1.4.164–65.
- 57.
Reynolds, A Treatise, 323.
- 58.
Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 602, 4. “But the real source of the continuing belief in the efficacy of cursing lay, not in theology but in popular sentiment.” Thomas also emphasizes the power within village life of the belief that “God would avenge all injuries” (604).
- 59.
Kavita Mudan Finn in “Bloodlines and Blood Spilt: Historical Retelling and the Rhetoric of Sovereignty in Shakespeare’s First Tetralogy” in Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England, 30, 126–46 writes that Margaret “co-opts Richard’s sovereign power over life and death by calling upon the blood of his murdered victims to bring divine justice upon him” (140). See also Kavita Mudan Finn, The Last Plantagenet Consorts: Gender, Genre, and Historiography, 1440–1627 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
- 60.
Elizabeth Bourne to Anthony Bourne, n.d., BL, Conway papers, Additional MSS 23212, fo. 12 in Linda A. Pollack, “Anger and the Negotiation of Relationships in Early Modern England,” The Historical Journal, 47, 3 (2004): 576.
- 61.
Pollack, “Anger,” 578.
- 62.
Pollack, “Anger,” 580.
- 63.
“Yet curses also belong to speakers who are themselves under prohibition. The great cursers of classical tradition are victims who are themselves criminal, deluded, and cursed, both sinned against and sinning.” Kenneth Gross, “King Lear and the Register of Curse,” in Shakespeare’s Noise, 166.
- 64.
See Stephen D. White, “The Politics of Anger” in Anger’s Past and his argument that anger expressed publicly “involves a quasi-juridical appraisal,” 140.
- 65.
See Elizabeth V. Spellman, “Anger and Insubordination,” in Women, Knowledge, and Reality: Explorations in Feminist Philosophy, eds. Ann Garry, Marilyn Pearsall (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 263–73.
- 66.
See Richard E. Burton, “‘Zealous Anger’ and Aristocratic Relationships,” in Anger’s Past for an argument that “good” anger had its practical side, politically. “Good” anger came about through the righteous zeal that flowed out of the exercise of legitimate authority” (169–70). With regard to female authority and anger, Helen Ostovich argues that The Winter’s Tale is “daring in its affirmation of women’s just anger, casting into doubt the legitimacy and necessity of men’s authority over women.” This is from a paper delivered at the MLA, New Orleans, Dec 27–30, 2001; “Women’s Anger,” 8.
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Mirabella, B. (2018). “I Can No Longer Hold Me Patient!”: Margaret, Anger, and Political Voice in Richard III. In: Finn, K., Schutte, V. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Shakespeare's Queens. Queenship and Power. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74518-3_11
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