Adaptive and Maladaptive Features of Religious Beliefs as Sources of Morality

Cliquet, Robert; Avramov, Dragana

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_3

Robert Cliquet^3,4 &
Dragana Avramov⁵

521 Accesses

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to look at religion and religiosity as sources of morality from an evolutionary perspective. The evolutionary origins of religious beliefs are investigated, genetic and neurological factors involved in religious behaviour are reviewed, and adaptive advantages and disadvantages of religions in pre-modern and modern living conditions are evaluated. The discourse on the organised religions is mainly focused on the Mediterranean region—Judaism, Christianity and Islam—whose essential characteristics and historical developments are briefly described and evaluated from an evolutionary point of view. The doctrines of the Abrahamic religions, as revealed in their basic scriptures, raise some anthropological questions and paradoxes about religions as sources of morality. The core of the chapter is devoted to the discussion about (1) individual and social effects; (2) proximate and ultimate effects; and (3) effects in ancestral and modern living conditions of religions as sources of morality and guidance for behaviour. The closing section of this chapter deals with the relation between science and religion. Two major issues are addressed: (1) the (in)compatibility of science and religion; and (2) the persistence of (neo)creationist beliefs.

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Notes

1.
Gazzaniga (2005, 163).
2.
Shariff et al. (2016).
3.
Hamer (2005, 4).
4.
Wilson (1978, 169).
5.
Exaptation: shifts in the function of a trait during evolution (Gould and Vrba 1982).
6.
For instance, Tremlin (2006, 5).
7.
Saroglou and Muñoz-García (2008, 97).
8.
Dennett (2007, 25), Dow (2008), Steadman and Palmer (2008, 6).
9.
Boyer (2001, 65), Teehan (2010, 54).
10.
Previc (2006, 501), Rossano (2010, 27).
11.
Diamond (2012, 329).
12.
Pinxten (2010, 55).
13.
Cliquet and Thienpont (2002, 601).
14.
Stark (2001, 5), Graffin and Provine (2007, 294).
15.
Hill and Hood (1999), Hall et al. (2008).
16.
Although many surveys contain relevant and interesting data about those issues, it must be noted that many of them often approach the question of ideological diversity in a superficial and/or a prejudiced, lopsided, or unbalanced way. A striking example is the otherwise highly interesting European Value Study that includes detailed questions about religious practice and religiosity, but almost completely neglects to capture the characteristics and diversity of the views of non-religious people such as apatheists, agnostics, freethinkers, atheists and humanists.
17.
Zuckerman (2005, 16).
18.
Crabtree (2009).
19.
http://www.wvsevsdb.com/wvs/WVSAnalizeQuestion.jsp.
20.
For instance, Inglehart et al. (2004), Pickel and Müller (2009), Haller et al. (2009), Crabtree and Pelham (2009).
21.
Edgell et al. (2006).
22.
McCullough et al. (2003), Wink et al. (2007), Saroglou (2010), Kandler and Riemann (2015).
23.
Hills et al. (2004), Saroglou and Muñoz-García (2008), Saroglou (2010), Lynn et al. (2009).
24.
Personality traits are invariable patterns of responses to the exigencies of the environment, have a high heritability and are highly stable throughout adulthood. The five-factor model of personality distinguishes the factors ‘neuroticism’, ‘novelty’, ‘conscientiousness’, ‘agreeableness’ and ‘extraversion’ (Costa and McCrae 1992; 2008).
25.
Saroglou and Muñoz-García (2008), Saroglou (2010).
26.
Altemeyer and Hunsberger (2005).
27.
Glaeser and Sacerdote (2008), Schieman et al. (2010). Johnson (1997), Baker (2008), Sherkat (2008, 2011).
28.
For instance, Verhage (1964), Poythress (1975), Wenegrat (1990, 88), Bell (2002), Lynn et al. (2009), Nyborg (2009), Kanazawa (2010).
29.
Lynn et al. (2009).
30.
Norris and Inglehart (2004).
31.
Zuckerman (2005), Halman and Draulans (2006), Paul (2009), Harris (2010).
32.
Armstrong (1993, 3).
33.
Krippner (2005, 81).
34.
Wilson (2002, 3).
35.
Saver and Rabin (1997, 507).
36.
Barnea and Schwartz (1998), Caprara et al. (2006).
37.
McCrae (1996).
38.
Hamer (2005, 13), Dennett (2007, 7).
39.
For instance, Piedmont (1999, 988), Zinnbauer et al. (1999, 899), Hill et al. (2000), Anandarajah and Hight (2001, 83), Vannelli (2001, 223), Hill and Pargament (2003, 72), Miller and Thoresen (2003, 29), Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 27), Harris (2014).
40.
Saslow et al. (2013).
41.
Bouchard and Loehlin (2001), Koenig et al. (2005).
42.
Bulbulia (2004), Whitehouse (2008).
43.
For the definition of morality see Chap. 2 Sect. 2.2.
44.
See the discussions in Holloway (1999), Buckman (2000), Wielenberg (2005), Hauser and Singer (2006), Epstein (2010).
45.
For instance, Pope Pius XI, 1930; D. Wuerl, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic diocese of Washington, DC (https://www.priestsforlife.org/magisterium/bishops/wuerl-2006-red-mass.htm).
46.
See, for instance, the survey by Shermer and Sulloway quoted in Shermer (2003).
47.
Pew Research Center (2007), Gervais (2014).
48.
Decety et al. (2015).
49.
Hauser (2006, 421).
50.
Wright (2009, 23–26).
51.
Martin (2008, 251).
52.
For instance, Zuckermann (2008), see also Epstein (2010), Shults (2015).
53.
Dennett (2007, 305), see also Aronson (2008), Norenzayan (2014).
54.
Teehan (2006, 748), Lahti (2009, 69).
55.
Broom (2006), Hauser (2006), Pyysiäinen (2006).
56.
See also Beit-Hallahmi (2010, 130).
57.
Stenger (2009, 150).
58.
Broom (2004; 2006).
59.
Peterson and Seligman (2004).
60.
Rossano (2010, 186ff).
61.
For instance, Brown (1991), Armstrong (1993), James (1902; 1997), Atran (2002), Kardong (2010).
62.
Eliade (1961).
63.
Alper (2006, 62), Churchland (2011, 108).
64.
For instance, d’Aquili and Newberg (1999), Hamer (2005), McNamara (2006; 2009).
65.
For instance, Darwin (1871), James (1902), Harrison (1909), Cattell, (1938, 1972), Gallus et al. (1972), Stent (1976), Wilson (1978), Kieffer (1979), Reynolds and Tanner (1983), Baril (2006).
66.
Tremlin (2006, 141).
67.
For instance, Crippen and Machalek (1989), Boyer (2001), Atran (2002), McClenon (2002), Wilson (2002), Voland and Söling (2004), Dawkins (2006), McNamara (2006), Graffin and Provine (2007), King (2007), Bulbulia et al. (2008), Wolpert (2008), Ellsworth (2009), Feierman (2009), Voland and Schiefenhövel (2009), Wright (2009), Kardong (2010), Teehan (2010), Voland (2010).
68.
Guthrie (1993, 39–61), see also Barrett (2000, 31–32), Atran (2006, 189), Teehan (2010, 45).
69.
Pascal’s wager (Pascal 1670) suggests that in a bet on whether God exists or not, a rational person should live as if God exists and try to believe in God because of the benefits to be expected in case that God really exists and has the powers attributed to him. If God does not exist, losses will only be finite.
70.
Weidenreich (1943), Hayden (2003), Rossano (2007). See also Defleur et al. (1999) for cannibalism among the neanderthalers.
71.
Carbonell and Mosquera (2006).
72.
For instance, Louwe Kooijmans et al. (1989), Trinkhaus and Shipman (1993), Defleur et al. (1999).
73.
White et al. (2003).
74.
Hayden (2003).
75.
Chauvet et al. (1995), Bocherens et al. (2006).
76.
Singer (1981, 120), Lahti (2009, 70), Bellah (2011, 104).
77.
Darwin (1871), Chaps. 4 and 5.
78.
Lahti (2009, 70).
79.
Sanderson (2008, 3).
80.
Guthrie (1993, 6).
81.
Peoples et al. (2016). High God: is a “spiritual being who is believed to have created all reality and/or to be its ultimate governor” (Swanson 1960). High gods may “vary in their activity in human affairs and their concern with human morality” (Johnson 2005, 418).
82.
Dennett (2007), Steadman and Palmer (2008, x), Wright (2009).
83.
Armstrong (1993), Giovannoli (2000, 81), Dennett (2007).
84.
Teehan (2010, 66), see also MacIntyre (2004), Van Schaik and Michel (2016).
85.
Recently Norenzayan et al. (2016) labelled the organised religions as ‘prosocial religions’. Although the organised religions are characterised by a number of cultural features that strongly enhance the social relations and social cohesion within their societies, identifying them as ‘prosocial’ does not distinguish them from the previous stage in the development of religions, because the animistic or folk religions also had the promotion of social cohesion in their smaller communities as one of their major attributes and benefits.
86.
Roes and Raymond (2003), Johnson (2005), Botero et al. (2014), Purzycki et al. (2016).
87.
Snarey (1996), Botero et al. (2014).
88.
Norenzayan et al. (2016, 13).
89.
Lenski (1984), Heilbroner (1995, 30).
90.
Veenhoven (2005), Steckel and Wallis (2009).
91.
Pinker (2011, 57), Peoples and Marlowe (2012).
92.
Sanderson and Roberts (2008).
93.
Farmer (2006) considers this transformation to be influenced by the expanded availability of lightweight reading materials.
94.
Ara Norenzayan et al. (2016, 24) argue that the societal and religious changes of the ‘Axial Age’ long preceded and even followed that period, and moreover developed very gradually.
95.
Jaspers (1949, 15), see also Armstrong (2006).
96.
Sanderson (2008, 153).
97.
Kirkpatrick (2005).
98.
For instance, Armstrong (2006, 397).
99.
Wade (2009, 124).
100.
Van Schaik and Michel (2016).
101.
Pinxten (2010).
102.
Nevertheless, ordinary people in these religions often believe in and pray to a series of gods and spirits that behave counterintuitively and unintelligibly to factual and logical reasoning (Atran 2006, 188).
103.
For instance, Coogan (2005).
104.
Abrahamic religions are the monotheistic faiths emphasising and tracing their common origin to Abraham, the mythical ancestor of several Middle East tribes, with whom, according to the Hebrew bible, God made a covenant about his worship, future descendants and land (Genesis, 17). Christians see Abraham as their spiritual and physical ancestor (Rom. 4:17). Muslims see Abraham as a prophet in the line from Noah to Muhammad, all to whom Allah sent revelation (Qur'an, 4:163).
105.
At the conferences of Cairo (1994) and Beijing (1995), the Holy See, some Catholic countries and some Islamic countries, after having endeavoured and partly succeeded in watering down the conference recommendations, expressed many reservations on the conference consensus that was reached (United Nations 1994, 1995).
106.
Ussher (1650).
107.
Thompson (2000), Lazare (2002), Silberman and Finkelstein (2002).
108.
Exodus, 20:5: “You shall not bow down to them (i.e. other gods) or serve them, for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, ….”
109.
Deuteronomy 7:6: “For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord your God has chosen you to be a people for his treasured possession, out of all the peoples who are on the face of the earth.”
110.
Genesis 17:7: “And I will establish my covenant between me and you and your offspring after you throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and to your offspring after you.”
111.
Genesis 17:8: “And I will give to you and to your offspring after you the land of your sojournings, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession, and I will be their God.”
112.
Exodus 23:22: “But if you carefully obey his voice and do all that I say, then I will be an enemy to your enemies and an adversary to your adversaries.”
113.
Dawkins (2006, 37).
114.
Wilson (2002, 133).
115.
Matthew 10:5-6; Vermes (2004, 414), Wright (2009, 267).
116.
Stark (1997).
117.
Galatians 6:10; Sim (1997, 192), Vermes (2004, 417), Dawkins (2006, 37), Wright (2009, 267).
118.
Matthew 25: 31-46; Keith (1946, 73), Teehan (2006, 768).
119.
Eschatology: is the branch of theology dealing with the final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity.
120.
Vermes (2004, 343).
121.
Cattell (1972, 272).
122.
Matthew 5-7.
123.
For instance, John 1:9; Matthew 28:19; Gal. 3.28; Rom. 2:11; Cor. 12:13.
124.
Keith (1946, 69), Teehan 2009, 244; 2010), de Duve (2009; 2011).
125.
Lahti (2009, 85).
126.
Lahti (2004, 143), Teehan (2010, 129, 142).
127.
Hefner (1999, 495).
128.
For instance, Vermeersch (2016, 62–65).
129.
Golden Rule or ethic of reciprocity states that “one should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself”.
130.
For instance, Blackburn (2001).
131.
For instance, Matthew 5:17; 5:28-30; 6:7-11; 6:25-34; 10:35.
132.
For instance, Matthew 5:32; 10:34.
133.
Williams (1893, 522).
134.
For instance, Ephesians, 6:5-8: “Slaves, obey your earthly masters with fear and trembling, with a sincere heart, as you would Christ, not by the way of eye-service, as people-pleasers, but as servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart, rendering service with a good will as to the Lord and not to man, knowing that whatever good anyone does, this he will receive back from the Lord, whether he is a slave or free.”
135.
For instance, Mark 16:16: “Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned.”
136.
In Judeo-Christian Scriptures, women are expected to be submissive to their husband and their primary role is childbearing. For instance: Timothy 2:11-15; see also Corinthians, 11:3 and 14:34.
137.
Jones and Reynolds (1995, 299).
138.
Kitcher (2007, 143), Richerson and Boyd (2005, 210).
139.
Wilson (2002, 148).
140.
Adams (1995).
141.
Van Schaik and Michel (2016, 334).
142.
O’Grady (2013, 347–352).
143.
For instance, Keith (1946, 73), Harris (2004), Hitchens (2009), Nicey (2017).
144.
Pinker (2011, 132).
145.
For a more general discussion of religious violence, see for instance Haught (2002) or Deschner (1986–2013).
146.
Lowell (1967), Sheils and Wood (1987).
147.
Keith (1946, 73).
148.
Cf. the Roman Catholic position on contraception (Pope Pius XI, 1930; Pope Paul VI 1968), abortion (Pope John Paul II, 1995), in vitro fertilisation (IVF) (Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, 1987), homosexuality (Catholic Church, 1993), eugenics (Pope Benedict XVI, 2009), and euthanasia (Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, 1980).
149.
Qur’an 2:185; see also Qur’an 25:5-7.
150.
According to independent Islam-scientists, the Qur’an is, just as the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, the result of a long editorial process that took several centuries and in which several authors were involved (e.g. Warraq 1998; Mulder and Milo 2009; Ohlig and Puin 2009).
151.
See also Edis (2007, 153).
152.
Qur’an 4:34: “… if you fear high-handedness from your wives, remind them (of the teachings of God), then ignore them when you go to bed, then hit them.”
153.
Qur’an 55:70-74: “There are good-natured, beautiful maidens… Dark-eyed, sheltered in pavilions… Untouched beforehand by man or jinn… Which then, of your Lord’s blessings do you both deny?”
154.
Qur’an 4:3: “If you fear that you will not deal fairly with orphan girls, you may marry whichever (other) women seem good to you, two three or four. If you fear that you cannot be equitable (to them), then marry only one, or your slave(s): that is more likely to make you avoid bias.”
155.
Qur’an 33:50: “Prophet, We have made lawful to you the wives to whom you have granted dowries and the slave girls whom God has given you as booty.”
156.
Qur’an 5:33: “Those who wage war against God and His Messenger and strive to spread corruption in the land should be punished by death, crucifixion, the amputation of an alternative hand and foot, or banishment from the land: a disgrace for them in this world, and then a terrible punishment in the Hereafter, unless they repent before you overpower them—in that case bear in mind that God is forgiving and merciful.” See also Qur’an 9:73.
157.
Qur’an 4:74: “Let those fight in the way of Allah who sell the life of this world for the other. Who so fights in the way of Allah, be he slain or be he victorious, on him We shall bestow a vast reward.”
158.
Qur’an 24:2-3: “Both the male and female who are guilty of adultery or premarital sex are to be flogged with one hundred lashes. Absolutely no mercy is to be given. It is to be witnessed by a group of Muslims. The adulterers can only marry a person who has been found guilty of the same crime or an unbeliever in the religion or Islam.”
Qur’an 5:38: “Men or women who steal must have their hands cut off as a reward for their deeds. This will be an example for others.”
Qur’an 8:12-14: “The hearts of the infidels will be terrorized so Muslims should attack with courage and behead them and cut off all their fingers. Maiming your victims will show that opposing Allah and Mohammed results in severe punishment. They are going to Hell.”
Qur’an 5:33-34: “Those who make war on Allah and Mohammed or strive to spread disorder in the land should be killed, crucified, have their hands and feet cut off on alternate sides or be exiled. They must be degraded in this world and doomed in the afterlife except those that repent before the Muslims capture them. In their case Allah will forgive them.”
159.
Or his followers who drafted the Qur’anic texts in the two or three centuries after Muhammad’s death (see, for instance, Rodinson 1996; Warraq 1998; Ohlig and Puin 2009; Hazleton 2014).
160.
Apparently, Islam’s initiators (Muhammad and/or his followers) felt the need to react against the thriving but ruthless capitalism in the economically booming and successful Mecca of their time, causing them to preach that Muslims ought to develop a just and fair society in which the less fortunate and more vulnerable are treated decently (Armstrong 1993, 156, 167; see also Hazleton 2014).
161.
Wright (2009, 397).
162.
Matthew 5-7.
163.
For instance, Qur’an 2:272: “Not upon you, [O Muhammad], is [responsibility for] their guidance, but Allah guides whom He wills…”
164.
Hirsi Ali (2015, 34).
165.
Shari’ah is Islamic religious law derived from the Holy Qur'an and the Sunnah. It refers to the sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad as recorded in a hadith. It is based on divine authority, and embodies broad, general rules that are immutable.
166.
Armstrong (1993, 158), Kennedy (2007), Wade (2009, 622).
167.
See for instance Stamos (2008, 183).
168.
According to David N. Stamos (2008, 183), the requirement of public prayer five times a day especially helps preserve the Islam meme complex in populations with low literacy levels.
169.
For instance, Coleman, in Jones and Reynolds (1995, 240).
170.
Haddad (2002), Bawer (2006), Nachmani (2009).
171.
Bruce (2002), Rushdie (2005), Pope Benedict XVI (2006), Harris (2007), Kaufmann (2011, 11), Hirsi Ali (2015), del Valle (2016).
172.
Du Pasquier (1992), Lewis (2003), Manji (2003), Edis (2007), Van Rooy and Van Rooy (2010), Hirsi Ali (2015).
173.
Littman (2003).
174.
The CDHRI includes several articles which are exclusive for non-Muslims, for example
Article 1:
(a) All human beings form one family whose members are united by their subordination to Allah and descent from Adam….
(b) All human beings are Allah's subjects, and the most loved by Him are those who are most beneficial to His subjects, and no one has superiority over another except on the basis of piety and good deeds.”
Article 2:
(a) Life is a God-given gift…
Article 10:
Islam is the religion of true unspoiled nature. It is prohibited to exercise any form of pressure on man or to exploit his poverty or ignorance in order to force him to change his religion to another religion or to atheism.
Article 11:
(a) Human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress or exploit them, and there can be no subjugation but to Allah the Almighty.
Article 23:
(b) Everyone shall have the right to participate, directly or indirectly in the administration of his country’s public affairs. He shall also have the right to assume public office in accordance with the provisions of Shari'ah.
175.
Under Shari’ah law, Islamic marriages require that a Muslim woman may marry only a Muslim man and that her guardian must give permission for a virgin female to marry. Women’s testimony is only worth half that of a man, but also their freedom of movement is strictly limited. Women are not even free to choose their work. Orthodox Islam forbids women from working outside the home (Warraq 2009).
Article 6 of the CDHRI stipulates the following about women:
(a) Woman is equal to man in human dignity, has her own rights to enjoy as well as duties to perform, has her own civil entity and financial independence, and the right to retain her name and lineage.
(b) The husband is responsible for the maintenance and welfare of the family.
176.
The CDHRI states in its Article 5 among others:” (a) the family is the foundation of society, and marriage is the basis of making a family. …”.
177.
The CDHRI includes the following Article 22:
(a) Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such a manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shari'ah….
(b) Everyone shall have the right to advocate what is right, propagate what is good, and warn against what is wrong and evil according to the norms of Islamic Shari'ah.
(c) Information is a vital necessity to society. It may not be exploited or misused in such a way as may violate sanctities and the dignity of Prophets, undermine moral and ethical values or disintegrate, corrupt or harm society or weaken its faith.
178.
For instance, Rauf (2004).
179.
In addition to the Qur’an, see the Hadith collections of Muhammad Ibn Ismail al-Bukhari (810-870): Sahih Bukhari, and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri (821-875): Sahih Muslim.
180.
Boudry (2014; 2015, 187).
181.
http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Themes/jihad_passages.html.
182.
Vigilant et al. (1991), White et al. (2003), Trinkaus (2005), McDougall et al. (2005), Hublin et al. (2017), Richter et al. (2017).
183.
In present-day taxonomic terminology, Hominina is a sub-tribe (including modern humans and their extinct relatives) of the Family Hominidae (including the great apes and humans) (cf. Goodman et al. 1998).
184.
Grine et al. (2009), Fleagle et al. (2010).
185.
For instance, Miller (1999), Giberson (2008), Deane-Drummond (2012), Walton (2012).
186.
Emberger (1994).
187.
Moritz (2012).
188.
Russell (1957, 1997), LaCroix (1974), Stump and Murray (1999, 153), Everitt (2004, 228, 2006), Teehan (2013). See, in particular, the excellent collection of philosophical papers in the anthology of Michael Martin and Ricki Monnier (2003), especially Part 2 (59–124): Deductive evil disproves of the existence of God.
189.
The Augustinian notion of an angelic fall giving rise to the natural evils of our world and the corruption of an originally perfect creation (Campbell 1975; Hick 1966; Emberger 1994; Williams 2001; Haught 2004, 2010).
190.
Leibnitz (1710), Teilhard de Chardin (1956, 345), Barbour (1997, 300). See also the discussions, for instance, in Stump and Murray (1999, 153), Everitt (2004, 228), Kitcher (2007, 123), Ehrman (2008) or Vermeersch (2016, 35ff), about the logical inconsistency of evil with the existence of a being which is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good.
191.
For instance, Emberger (1994), Barbour (1997, 300ff), Crean (2007), McGrath (2004), McGrath and McGrath (2007), Berlinski (2008), Haught (2008, 2010), Southgate (2008), Fleck (2011), Coakley (2013).
192.
Martin and Monnier (2003, 59–124), Everitt (2004, 228), Stenger (2009, 107), Vermeersch (2016, 34ff).
193.
“For by grace you have been saved through faith: and this is not your own doing, it is the gift of God—not because of works, lest any man should boast” (Eph. 2: 8-9).
194.
The Talmud Menahoth 43b-44a says that a Jewish man should pray the following prayer each day: “Thank you God for not making me a gentile, a woman, or a slave”.
195.
Corinthians 14:34-35: “the women should keep silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be in submission, as the Law also says. If there is anything they desire to learn, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church.”
196.
“It was mentioned by Daraj Ibn Abi Hatim, that Abu al-Haytham ‘Adullah Ibn Wahb narrated from Abu Sa'id al-Khudhri, who heard Muhammad saying, ‘The smallest reward for the people of Heaven is an abode where there are eighty thousand servants and seventy-two houri, over which stands a dome decorated with pearls, aquamarine and ruby, as wide as the distance from al-Jabiyyah to San'a.” (Imam at-Tirmidhi in his “Sunan”, Volume IV, chapters on “The Features of Heaven as described by the Messenger of Allah”, chapter 21: “About the Smallest Reward for the People of Heaven”, hadith 2687).
197.
ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_myth_gods_index.htm.
198.
Galton (1869, 274).
199.
For instance, Inglehart et al. (2004), Pickel and Müller (2009).
200.
These standard methods are based on the variance analysis of different groups of people, varying in their degree of genetic similarity and differences in the environment in which they have been raised. A classical method consists of cross-comparing identical and non-identical twins, raised in the same or in different families (e.g. Plomin et al. 2008). The fraction of the phenotypic differences between individuals that can be attributed to genetic differences is called heritability and the fraction that can be identified as environmental variance is called modificability. One of the most important subdivisions of environmental variance is the division between shared and non-shared environmental influences that can affect members of the same family. The notion ‘shared environment’ refers to between-family non-genetic differences that make siblings more similar than children reared in different families. Social class and parental differences in childrearing styles are examples of between-family variation. The concept of ‘non-shared or unique environment’ refers to within-family non-genetic variance that makes siblings in the same family different from one another. Within-family non-genetic differences include prenatal and biological conditions as well as psychosocial events that affect one sibling in a different way to another.
In the coming years the methods to study the causes of within- and between-population variance in behaviour and measurement of the effects of genetic and environmental factors will be further refined, taking into account the new insights from molecular genetics showing that traits are not only influenced by genetic and environmental factors, but also that the effects of DNA are partly contingent on the environment. In the domain of social behaviour, some scholars already speak of an emerging new sociogenomics (e.g. Robinson et al. 2005, 2008; Roberts and Jackson 2008; Slavich and Cole 2013).
201.
For instance, Loehlin and Nichols (1976), Truett et al. (1994), Beer et al. (1998), D’Onofrio et al. (1999), Kirk et al. (1999), Koenig et al. (2005; 2008), Bradshaw and Ellison (2008), Button et al. (2011), Kandler and Riemann (2013).
202.
Bouchard and Loehlin (2001), Koenig et al. (2005). For instance, on the basis of the Minnesota twin study (Waller et al. 1990; Bouchard et al. 1999; Koenig et al. 2005) in which the heritability of intrinsic religiousness (a proxy for spirituality) was examined, heritability was estimated at 43%. Identical results were obtained on the basis of the Australian Twin registry (D’Onofrio et al. 1999; Eaves et al. 1999a, b; Kirk et al. 1999a, b) in which the heritability of spirituality was investigated by means of a self-transcendence questionnaire: the estimated heritability was 37% for men and 41% for women. Regarding the effects of environmental factors, it appeared that the non-shared environment accounted for 42–50% of the observed variance, whilst the effect of the shared environment was insignificant. In contrast, for religious service attendance the shared environment amounted to 43% of the variance, whereas the remaining variance was due to a mixture of the non-shared environment and a limited genetic factor. In the Virginia Commonwealth University twin study (Kendler et al. 1997; 2003; 2009) differences in religious affiliation are culturally determined, whilst variation in religious attitudes and behaviour are subject to varying degrees of genetic effects. Recent findings from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (Beer et al. 1998; Bradshaw and Ellison 2008) confirm this by showing that genetic influences are relatively smaller on religious attendance (32%), somewhat larger for conservative beliefs (41–44%) and religious coping strategies (42%), and quite strong for religious transformation and commitments (65%).
203.
D’Onofrio et al. (1999), Bradshaw and Ellison (2008).
204.
Truett et al. (1994).
205.
Boomsma et al. (1999), D’Onofrio et al. (1999), Eaves et al. (1990, 1999, 2008).
206.
Saroglou and Muñoz-García (2008, 88).
207.
Ellsworth (2009).
208.
For instance, Thagard (2005), Zuckerman (2005).
209.
Comings et al. (2000).
210.
Cloninger et al. (1993).
211.
Dopamine is a neuroendocrine transmitter that performs several functions in the body. In the brain it is a neurotransmitter, which is a chemical released by nerve cells sending signals to other nerve cells.
212.
Hamer (2005, 72).
213.
Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC18A2 gene. VMAT2 is an integral membrane protein that transports monoamines, particularly neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine.
214.
For instance, Borg et al. (2003), Ham et al. (2004), Beaver et al. (2009), Sasaki et al. (2011, 2013).
215.
Hinde (1999), Fuller (2006), Oviedo (2009).
216.
For instance, Jack et al. (2016).
217.
See overviews in Persinger (1987), Joseph (2000; 2001), Newberg et al. (2001), Newberg (2006), Previc (2006), McNamara (2006; 2009), Jeeves and Brown (2009), Chiesa and Serretti (2010), Tiger and McGuire (2010), Shermer (2011), Wlodarski and Pearce (2016).
218.
Kapogiannis et al. (2009), Miller et al. (2014).
219.
For instance, Banquet (1972), Benson et al. (1990), Inzlicht et al. (2009).
220.
For instance, Timio et al. (1988), Wenneberg and Schneider (1997).
221.
Persinger (2003).
222.
Previc (2006), Brugger (2007).
223.
For instance, Persinger (1987), Ramachandran and Blakeslee (1998), Siddle et al. (2002), Wuerfel et al. (2004), Rogers and Paloutzian (2006), McNamara et al. (2006), Schachter (2006), Harris and McNamara (2009), Johnstone et al. (2011).
224.
Dewhurst and Beard (1970), Previc (2006), Dein (2011).
225.
McKinney (1994), Saver and Rabin (1997), Newberg et al. (2001), Gazzaniga (2005), Trimble (2007), Comings (2008). Regarding Paul’s experience of being blinded by a bright light in the sky on the road to Damascus, William Hartmann (2015) suggested that this might have been produced by a fireball meteor, implying that Paul’s Damascene conversion and subsequent important role in the development of Christianity might have been strongly influenced by a random space rock entering the Earth’s atmosphere.
226.
See, for instance, Wilson (2012, 263).
227.
For instance, Pahnke (1967), Batson and Ventis (1982), Schultes et al. (2001), Goodman (2002), Nichols and Chemel (2006).
228.
Arzy et al. (2005).
229.
Bennion (2004).
230.
Azari et al. (2001), Azari (2006), Borg et al. (2003), Newberg and Lee (2006), Newberg and Waldman (2007, 2009), Beauregard and Paquette (2006).
231.
McNamara (2009, 105), see also Previc (2007, 527).
232.
Berns et al. (2012), Atran and Ginges (2015).
233.
For instance, McKinney (1994), d’Aquili and Newberg (1999), Peters (2001), Joseph (2002), Alston (2007).
234.
Geertz (2009, 324).
235.
For instance, Buddhist monks, nuns, experienced meditators.
236.
For instance, Vance et al. (2010).
237.
Albright (2000), Alper (2006, 151).
238.
Fodor (1983), Tooby and Cosmides (1992), Geary (1998), Gazzaniga (2005), Ellsworth (2009), Tremlin (2006).
239.
Guthrie (1999), Barrett (2000, 31), Boyer (2001).
240.
Premack and Woodruff (1978), Povinellia and Preuss (1995).
241.
Tremlin (2006, 75, 105).
242.
Tremlin (2006, 132).
243.
Evans (2000), Barrett (2001), Kelemen (2004).
244.
Barrett (2004, 108).
245.
Physicalism or materialism: this theory claims that reality consists entirely of physical matter which is the sole cause of every possible occurrence, including human thought, feeling, and action. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism).
246.
‘Soul’ in Christian thought is a concept that has functioned in at least two ways: to designate the enduring facet of the self (that in some sense survives death), and as a label for the aspect of the human that is accountable for moral choices and capable of communication with God (Brown et al. 1998).
247.
For instance, Bulkeley (2005, 1), Jones (2005, 56).
248.
Krippner, in Bulkeley (2005, 68).
249.
For instance: meditation, hypnosis, and other fields of psychophysiology, and rare parapsychological phenomena, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, near-death, out-of-body and past-life experiences.
250.
For instance, Beauregard and O'Leary (2008).
251.
For instance, Grinde (1998), Saxton (2009), Voland and Schiefenhövel (2009), Daecke and Schakenberg (2000), Kardong (2010), Bellah (2011), Norenzayan et al. (2016).
252.
For instance, Irons (2001), Wilson (2002; 2003), Bulbulia (2004), Adams (2005), Alcorta and Sosis (2005; 2012), Dow (2008), Norenzayan and Shariff (2008), Purzycki and Sosis (2008), Sanderson (2008), McNamara (2009), Sosis (2009), Kardong (2010), Baril (2013).
253.
For instance, Darwin (1871), Sperber (1985), Guthrie (1993), Hinde (1999), Kirkpatrick (1999; 2006; 2008), Pyysiäinen (2001), Atran (2002), Bering (2006), Newberg et al. (2001), Boyer (2003), Atran and Norenzayan (2004), Pinker (2004), Dawkins (2006), Granqvist (2006), Hauser (2006), Pyysiäinen and Hauser (2010), Van Schaik and Michel (2016).
254.
McNamara (2009).
255.
Dow (2008).
256.
Wilson (2003, 2; 2005, 385).
257.
For instance, Cliquet and Maelstaf (1977), McQuillan (2004), Frejka and Westoff (2008), Sanderson (2008), Weeden et al. (2008, 2013), Blume (2009).
258.
Spandrel: a cognitive by-product of other adaptive systems (Gould and Lewontin 1979).
259.
Exaptation: refers to shifts in the function of a trait during evolution (Gould and Vrba 1982).
260.
Boyer (2003), Kirkpatrick (2008); see also the discussion in Boudry (2015, 198).
261.
Newberg et al. (2001, 125).
262.
Ellsworth (2009).
263.
Powell and Clarke (2012).
264.
Voland (2009, 11).
265.
Norenzayan et al. (2016, 5ff).
266.
Wright (2009, 482).
267.
Teehan (2006, 749–751).
268.
For instance, Reynolds and Tanner (1983), Wenegrat (1990), Jones and Reynolds (1995), Burkert (1996), Grinde (1998), Hinde (1999), Boyer (2001), Atran (2002), Wilson (2002), Steadman and Palmer (2008), Ellsworth (2009), Reiss (2009), Voland and Schiefenhövel (2009) Kardong (2010).
269.
For instance, Diamond (2012, 367).
270.
Dawkins (2000), Atran (2002), Bulkeley (2004), Fuller (2006).
271.
See Newberg et al. (2001).
272.
Alper (2006, 129).
273.
For instance, Newberg et al. (2001), Spilka et al. (2003), Voland and Söling (2004), Ostow (2006).
274.
Boyer (2003, 121).
275.
Klarsfeld et al. (2003, 184).
276.
FM-2030, 1989, 199.
277.
McGuire and Tiger (2009, 132).
278.
For instance, Hamer (2005, 143), Inglehart and Welzel (2005), Alper (2006, 104), McGuire and Tiger (2009, 132).
279.
For instance, Thagard (2005), Oviedo (2009, 146–148).
280.
Gailliot et al. (2008).
281.
Stenger (2009, 16).
282.
Chatters (2000), Koenig et al. (2002), Sloan and Bagiella (2002), Kardong (2010, 36ff).
283.
Cleaning practices evolving into religious rituals may, without a conscious knowledge about their hygienic effects, nevertheless have caused a positive relation between such religious customs and health promotion (Kardong 2010, 36; see also Van Schaik and Michel 2016, 160ff).
284.
Theologians define miracles as phenomena that do not obey laws of nature.
285.
McNamara et al. (2006), McClenon (2002), Newberg et al. (2001), Rossano (2010), Van Schaik and Michel (2016).
286.
For instance, Easterlin (1975), Porter (1999), Grundy and Tomassini (2005).
287.
Campbell (1975).
288.
Johnson (2005), Johnson and Kruger (2004), Johnson and Bering (2006), Schloss and Murray (2011), Laurin et al. (2012), Johnson (2013).
289.
For instance, Wilson (2002).
290.
In recent years several Western countries have experienced a hot debate about whether and in what circumstances Islamic women are to be allowed or forbidden to wear a headscarf, or even a niqab or burqa. In the headscarf debate all sorts of arguments for and against are used which typically only cover superficial elements. Rarely, if ever, are the root causes of this behavioural phenomenon addressed, which some consider to be insignificant—‘a futile detail’! Headscarves, hijabs, chadors, niqabs and burqas are, along with many other discriminatory behavioural phenomena towards women, ultimately a result of what biologists call ‘sperm competition’ or the somewhat less distant ‘male-male competition’. In male-dominated patriarchal societies, as male property women were socially repressed, sexually segregated or monitored, possibly even veiled, and so protected (!) against the genetically cuckoo risks arising from possible contacts with male competitors. The headscarf is a cultural relic of the male cuckoo syndrome and the derived masculinist dominance urge that culminated in the agrarian-pastoral era in the biosocial and cultural oppression and exploitation of women. In the agrarian-pastoral cultural phase, the masculinist sexism was conveniently justified, confirmed and strengthened in the religions that developed in that era. Although female subordination and sequestration is a general feature of agrarian-pastoral religions, it has been maximised in Islam with its harem culture, veils, hijabs, chadors, niqabs and burqas. The headscarf—historically one of the symbols of female oppression and sexual chastity—is nowadays often represented as an expression of personal identity, comparable to the Christian crucifix, the humiliating origin of which also became the mark of exquisite identity. However, this is a fallacy! Why do only Muslim women have to wear headscarves, hijabs, chadors, niqabs or even burqas, while Muslim males are relieved from such forms of cover? Advocates in the West of the sexually differential vestimentary Muslim codes should visit fundamentalist Islamic countries to observe and experience how this difference is an expression of the fundamental sexual discrimination existing in those countries. Hence, the importation of sexually differential vestimentary codes, expressing sexual discrimination, should not be favoured, particularly for female compatriots with an immigrant background who need to integrate culturally and socially in modern host societies. Any form of cultural, religious, social, or political sexism should be discouraged, if not fought. It should not be forgotten that behind the claimed right to cultural identity, there often exists a hidden agenda to slow down the upward emancipation and social mobility of minority groups, and especially of the female members of those groups. Women in general are still struggling to fight the ‘glass ceiling’: this ceiling often lies much lower for immigrant women. All modern secular ideologies—liberalism, socialism, feminism, humanism, etc.—implicitly or explicitly reject inequity and inequality between the sexes and are also in favour of a clear separation of church and state. Whilst they have more or less succeeded in neutralising the social and political dominance of the Christian churches, they should avoid reversing this process with respect to the Islam or other religious belief systems that, via immigration, try to get foothold in modern societies. Accepting the headscarf or other behavioural manifestations that originated in the oppression and exploitation of women is—in the modern, secular society that resulted from the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment—an example of a regressive evolution.
291.
Batten (1994).
292.
Strassmann et al. (2012).
293.
Harris (2010, 147).
294.
Genesis 1:28; Deuteronomy, 7:13-14; see also the discussion in Betzig (2005).
295.
For instance, Cliquet and Maelstaf (1977), McQuillan (2004), Weeden et al. (2008), Frejka and Westoff (2008), Zhang (2008), Blume (2009), Vaas and Blume (2009), Rowthorn (2011), Weeden and Kurzban (2013).
296.
Vaas and Blume (2009, 220).
297.
Roes and Raymond (2003), Shariff and Norenzayan (2007), Norenzayan et al. (2016).
298.
For instance, Sosis (2000), Irons (2001), Wilson (2002), Sosis and Ruffle (2004), Voland and Söling (2004), Alcorta and Sosis (2005), Johnson (2005), Johnson and Bering (2006), McNamara (2006), Norenzayan and Shariff (2008), Steadman and Palmer (2008), Bulbulia et al. (2008), Soler (2008), Bulbulia (2012), Preston and Ritter (2013).
299.
Yamamoto et al. (2009, 225).
300.
Cronk (1994), Sosis (2003, 2006), Bulbulia (2004), Alcorta and Sosis (2005), Sosis and Alcorta (2008).
301.
Shariff and Norenzayan (2007), Atkinson and Bourrat (2011), Keltner et al. (2014).
302.
Voland (2009, 16).
303.
Divale (1972), Ember (1978), Alexander (1979, 1987), Diamond (1992), Van der Dennen (1995), Keeley (1996), LeBlanc (2003), Dunbar (2004), Gat (2006), Pinker (2011).
304.
Van der Dennen (1995), Juergensmeyer (2001), Haught (2002), Avalos (2005), Diamond (2012, 367).
305.
Gorelik et al. (2012).
306.
Marx (1867), Alexander (1987), Cronk (1994), Diamond (1997, 277), Stenger (2008, 246).
307.
Grinde (1998), Glass (2007).
308.
Nietzsche (1887, 267).
309.
Milgram (1974).
310.
Dennett (2006, 56).
311.
Dennett (2007, 90).
312.
Dawkins (2006, 165–166).
313.
Atran (2002); see also Vaas and Blume (2009, 115–126).
314.
For instance, Marx (1867), Alexander (1987).
315.
For instance, Batson (1983).
316.
For instance, Jones and Reynolds (1995), Alper (2006, 239), Dennett (2007, 69), Harris (2004, 15), Steadman and Palmer (2008, ix), Blume (2009, 119).
317.
The celibacy, and consequently the zero reproductive fitness of Catholic priests seems, at first sight, to contradict the proposition that religions are strongly focused on the reproduction of their adherents, but this is not necessarily so. If non-reproducing priests succeed in motivating their kin and non-kin adherents of their faith to strongly reproduce in order to spread their faith and the growth of their church—as everybody knows who has ever heard priests delivering sermons at the occasion of baptism ceremonies—one can witness the reproductive effects of a kind of kin selection by the indirect transmission of genes and memes of the celibatarians via their fellow believers (Livi-Bacci 1971; Crook and Crook 1988; Hill 1999; Deady et al. 2006).
318.
Alexander (2013).
319.
Crespi and Summers (2014).
320.
For instance, Wiebe (2013).
321.
Cliquet and Thienpont (2002, 601).
322.
Newberg et al. (2001).
323.
For instance, Dawkins (2000; 2003; 2006), Edis (2002), Stenger (2003; 2008; 2011), Dubessy et al. (2004), Hitchens (2008), Isaacson (2012), Krauss (2012).
324.
Wenegrat (1990), Roele (1993), Reynolds (1995), Bulbulia (2004), Dennett (2007), Davis (2009), Coyne (2012), Wiebe (2013).
325.
For instance, Teehan (2006, 769).
326.
For instance, Vail et al. (2010).
327.
For instance, Hogan (2004, 738.7).
328.
For instance, Newberg et al. (2001, 81).
329.
For instance, Grinde (1998), Purzycki and Sosis (2008), McGuire and Tiger (2009).
330.
Saroglou (2002), Saroglou et al. (2004).
331.
Kay et al. (2010), Granqvist et al. (2010).
332.
Benson and Spilka (1973), Francis et al. (2001).
333.
Levin (2001), Krause (2005).
334.
Bradshaw and Ellison (2008), Heinemann and Wörmann (2010), Flannelly and Galek (2010), Sasaki et al. (2011).
335.
Kirkpatrick and Shaver (1992), Pargament et al. (1998), Flannelly et al. (2010).
336.
Sedikides and Gebauer (2010).
337.
Phillips et al. (2004), Bradshaw and Ellison (2008), Flannelly et al. (2010), Levin (2010).
338.
Koenig et al. (2000), Miller and Thoresen (2003), Newberg and Lee (2006), Hall et al. (2008), Levin (2010), Waldron et al. (2011).
339.
For instance, Sloan and Bagiella (2002).
340.
Sosis (2000), Sosis and Ruffle (2004), Finkel et al. (2010).
341.
Ysseldyk et al. (2010).
342.
Bellow (2003).
343.
Atran and Norenzayan (2004).
344.
Hogan (2004).
345.
For instance, www.caritas.org.
346.
Putnam (2000, 65–79).
347.
For instance, Johnson (2005).
348.
For instance, Kitcher (1982, 2007), Godfrey (1983), Tiffin (1994), Larson and Witham (1998), Stenger (2003; 2008; 2011; 2012), Dawkins (1986; 2000; 2003; 2006), Russell (1997), Edis (2002), Harris (2004), Scott (2005), Skybreak (2006), Young and Edis (2006), Fuller (2007), Hitchens (2008), Coyne (2009), Isaacson (2012).
349.
Harris and McNamara (2008), Heimlich (2011).
350.
Alcorta and Sosis (2005).
351.
Dawkins (2006, 315), Council of Europe (2007), Dennett (2007, 56).
352.
United Nations (1989).
353.
However, it should be mentioned that, as is often the case in UN charters, the same Article 14 includes in its §3 a restrictive condition, worded as follows: “Freedom to manifest one’s religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.”
354.
Scott (2005), Numbers (2006), Jalajel (2009), Hameed (2010), Riexinger (2010).
355.
Baker and Bellis (1995), Shackelford and Pound (2006).
356.
Augustine of Hippo, 398; 426.
357.
Cliquet (1984).
358.
For instance, Meetoo and Mirza (2007).
359.
For instance, Terman and Women Living Under Muslim Laws (2007).
360.
For instance, Cornog (2003).
361.
For instance, Siker (2007).
362.
For instance, Denniston et al. (2010).
NB. In May 2012, in a historical and sensational verdict the district court of Cologne (Germany) ordered that boys who are circumcised for religious reasons is an offense because it is an irrevocable physical injury, arguing that the right of the parents nor the constitutionally enshrined freedom of religion justifies impeding the child’s right to bodily integrity and self determination. The Jewish and Muslim communities condemned the ruling as antireligious, and by the end of 2012, not surprisingly, the German Parliament voted, in opposition to its own constitution that guarantees bodily integrity, a law protecting religious circumcision (http://dipbt.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/17/112/1711295.pdf). For a detailed discussion of this issue, see Aurenque and Wiesing (2015).
363.
For instance, Skaine (2005), Odeyemi (2008).
364.
Cliquet (2010, 406–416).
365.
For instance, Huntington (1996), Haught (2002), Harris (2004), Dennett (2007), Saxton (2009), Graham and Haidt (2010).
366.
Nelson-Pallmeyer (2003), Teehan (2010, 147).
367.
For instance, Armstrong (2014).
368.
See the argumentation in, for instance, Du Pasquier (1992), Jansen (1997), Lewis (2003), Manji (2003), Van Rooy and Van Rooy (2010).
369.
Genesis 1:28.
370.
For instance, Cohen (1996), Ehrlich and Ehrlich (2008), Ewing et al. (2010).
371.
Huxley (1964, 108); see also Stenger (2009, 47).
372.
Trivers (2011, 282).
373.
Tremlin (2006, 6).
374.
Mark Bekoff, quoted in Moritz (2012).
375.
Philipse (1995, 2012), Martin and Monnier (2003), Everitt (2004), Dawkins (2006), Stenger (2007, 11; 2009, 12; 2012, 78), Paulos (2008), Krauss (2012), Vermeersch (2016).
376.
Stenger (2012, 78).
377.
Alper (2006, 97).
378.
Persinger (1987), quoted in Murray (2008).
379.
Hawking and Mlodinow (2010, 165).
380.
Krauss (2012, 185).
381.
For instance, Godfrey (1983), Tiffin (1994), Wilson and Dolphin (1996), Pennock (1999, 2003), Moore (2002), Forrest and Gross (2004), Young and Edis (2004), Stenger (2008, 2011), Krauss (2012).
382.
See the Genesis discourse in the Bible, even when this is not taken literally.
383.
Hinde (2002), Teehan (2006, 2010).
384.
Keith (1946).
385.
For instance, Barbour (1990), Kurtz (2003), Lüke et al. (2004), Graffin and Provine (2007), Viney (2008), Reiss (2009).
386.
Clayton and Schloss (2004, 320), Feierman (2009, xv).
387.
Non-overlapping magisteria: a concept proposed by Gould (1997, 1999), defined as different domains of inquiry, each one of which based on specific and non-overlapping domains of teaching authority. (See also, for instance, Anderson and Peacocke 1987; Barbour 1997; National Academy of Sciences 1998; Wilson 2002, 41; American Association for the Advancement of Science 2006; Ayala 2007; Reis 2009; Grassie 2010).
388.
Miller (1999, 169), Shermer (2004, 6), Ruse (2000; 2001; 2008; 2010), Rolston (1999), McGrath (2004), Collins (2006), Roughgarden (2006), Pope (1994; 2007), Lüke et al. (2004), Armstrong (2009).
389.
For instance, Teilhard de Chardin (1956), Sharpe (1991), Hefner (1993), Williams (1996, 2001), Haught (2000, 2010), Collins (2006), Pope (2007) Feierman (2009).
390.
For instance, Huxley (1894), Dewey (1922), Huxley (1927), Monod (1970), Russell (1997), Edis (2002), Dawkins (2006), Dennett (2007), Stenger (2008; 2012), Harris (2010), Philipse (2012), Valdecasas et al. (2013).
391.
Stenger (2007, 28; 2012, 290).
392.
National Academy of Sciences (1998, 58).
393.
Stenger (2012, 290); see also Rachels (1991, 99ff), Feierman (2009, xvi).
394.
Perakh and Young (2006, 191).
395.
National Academy of Sciences (1998, 58).
396.
For instance, Mix and Masel (2014, 2444); Delhez (2015, 35ff).
397.
McCauley (2000).
398.
Ecklund and Scheitle (2007).
399.
This issue is discussed in Harris (2010).
400.
Martin Gardner (1996), quoted in Shermer (1997, 133).
401.
For instance, Miller (1999), Collins (2006), Giberson (2008); see also Ashton (2001).
402.
See, for instance, several contributors to the edited book of Lüke et al. (2004).
403.
For a discussion of this issue, see Tremlin (2006).
404.
Shermer (1997, 277).
405.
Trivers (2011, 279).
406.
Collins (2006).
407.
Lewis (1952).
408.
Nowak and Coakley (2013).
409.
See in particular the contributions of Johnson (2013, 168–185), Schloss (2013, 201–219), Pruss (2013, 329–342), Clayton (2013, 343–361), Rota (2013, 362–374), and Coakley (2013, 375–386).
410.
Coakley (2013, 375).
411.
Pruss (2013, 332).
412.
Rota (2013, 364).
413.
Schloss (2013, 212).
414.
Pruss (2013, 333), Rota (2013, 364), Clayton (2013, 347), Coakley (2013, 383).
415.
Ecklund and Scheitle (2007).
416.
Larson and Witham (1998, 313).
417.
Shults (2015, 736).
418.
Previc (2006, 525); see also Wilson (2002, 41).
419.
Van Schaik and Michel (2016, 392).
420.
March (2009, 16); see also Stanley (2014).
421.
Cziko (1995), Dawkins (1983), Corning (1997; 2005).
422.
Miller (1999), Clayton and Schloss (2004), Teehan (2006).
423.
Hinde (2002), Voland and Söling (2004, 53).
424.
For instance, Teilhard de Chardin, 1950; Pope John Paul II, 1996; Haught (2004; 2010).
425.
On the basis of the present-day scientific acquisitions, it is fully justified to speak about ‘evolution science’, and no longer about evolutionary theory. The innumerable empirical observations and experiments of the present-day natural sciences show that biological evolution is a fact, and not just a theory, let alone a hypothesis. Allegations that evolution is a myth or a religion, e.g. “Evolution is sometimes the key mythological element in a philosophy that functions as a virtual religio” (Harrison, 1974, 1007) result from an incredible lack of knowledge and insight into sciences such as cosmology, geology, genetics and bioanthropology, cultural anthropology and archaeology. Indeed, evolution science includes not only knowledge from the life sciences but also involves knowledge from many other scientific disciplines, natural sciences as well as social sciences and humanities.
426.
See, for instance, the pertinent critique of Paul Cliteur (2010, 248–254) of the liberal interpretation of the Holy Scriptures by Karen Armstrong (1993; 2007; 2009).
427.
Stenger (2012, 45).
428.
In an analysis of recent survey results on adults in 31 European countries, Japan, Turkey and the US, in which the question was asked whether it is true that “Human beings, as we know them, developed from earlier species of animals”, it was found that 50–80% of the respondents in European countries answered positively (the highest percentages were obtained in Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, France, Japan, UK and Norway); in the ranking of the countries included in the study the US took the penultimate place (with 40%), only followed by Turkey with 25% (Miller et al. 2006). A Gallup Poll of 2005 revealed that 53% of US adults still believe that God created man exactly how the Bible describes it.
429.
Galton (1865; 1869; 1883; 1889), Weismann (1868; 1892; 1902), Dawkins (1976), see Tanghe (2013) for a general overview of the shift in the organismcentrist-genecentrist paradigm.
430.
Hawking and Mlodinow (2010), Stenger (2011; 2012), Krauss (2012).
431.
Micklethwait and Wooldridge (2009, 40); see also Edis (2007, 142).
432.
For instance, Dawkins (1996; 2006), Miller (1999), Stenger (2007).
433.
McGrath (2010).
434.
Dawkins (2000; 2003; 2006).
435.
Dennett (1995; 2007).
436.
Caiazza (2005, 105).
437.
For instance, McFague (1993), Johnson (1996), Barbour (1997), Van Till (1998), Peacocke (1998), Miller (1999), Haught (2000; 2004; 2010), Kaufman (2001), Schroeder (2001), Hunter (2003), McGrath (2004; 2007; 2010); Collins (2006), Cornwell (2007), Crean (2007), D’Souza (2007), Flew and Varghese (2007), McGrath and McGrath (2007), Holloway (2008), Armstrong (2009), Dowd (2009), Delhez (2015), Wilcox (2016).
438.
For instance, Davis (2016) in the ‘Scientific God Journal’ (http://scigod.com/index.php/sgj/index).
439.
Sproul (1979), Leeming (2009).
440.
Stenger (2009, 165).
441.
Genesis 1:1-31.
442.
Ussher 1650.
443.
According to the present stage of scientific knowledge, the Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old (Prothero and Dott 2009) and, according to the evidence of earliest fossils, life appeared on Earth at least 3.8 billion years ago and evolved gradually (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution), with the appearance of the first hominins 7 million years ago, and the present Homo sapiens sapiens between 150,000 and 300,000 years ago (Stringer and Andrews 2005; McDougall et al. 2005; Hublin et al. 2017).
444.
Whitcomb and Morris (1961), Ham (1987), Ashton (2001), Morris (2007).
445.
Matsumura (1995).
446.
Pope John Paul II (1996), Pope Benedict XVI (2007).
447.
See, for instance, the discussion in Edis (2007, 115ff).
448.
George McCready Price (1870–1963): Seventh-day Adventist and amateur geologist; see McCready Price (1923).
449.
Harold W. Clark (1891–1986): prominent creationist in the middle of the twentieth century.
450.
The Religion and Science Association (RSA), founded in 1935, was the first antievolutionary organisation in America (Numbers 2006, 123).
451.
The Deluge Geology Society (1938–1948) was a creationist organisation promoting flood geology.
452.
The American Scientific Affiliation (www.asa3.org), created in 1941, is a Christian religious organisation the purpose of which is to investigate any area relating to Christian faith and science.
453.
The Geoscience Research Institute (1958) (http://www.grisda.org/) is an official institute of the Seventh-day Adventist Church established to address the scientific evidence concerning origins.
454.
The Creation Research Society (CRS) was founded in 1963. The statement of belief of the Creation Research Society (CRS) (http://www.creationresearch.org/) includes: “(1) The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it is inspired throughout, all its assertions are historically and scientifically true in the original autographs. To the student of nature this means that the account of origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of simple historical truths. (2) All basic types of living things, including man, were made by direct creative acts of God during the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever biological changes have occurred since Creation Week have accomplished only changes within the original created kinds. (3) The great flood described in Genesis, commonly referred to as the Noachian Flood, was an historic event worldwide in its extent and effect. (4) We are an organisation of Christian men and women of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and Savior. The account of the special creation of Adam and Eve as one man and one woman and their subsequent fall into sin is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior for all mankind. Therefore, salvation can come only through accepting Jesus Christ as our Savior.”
455.
Supreme Court of The United States (1968), Epperson v. Arkansas. No. 7. 393 U.S. 97. Argued October 16, 1968. Decided November 12, 1968; see also Flank (2006).
456.
For instance, Whitcomb and Morris (1964), Morris (1985; 2007).
457.
The scientific creationist principles of the Institute for Creation Research (http://www.icr.org/) include among others: “The physical universe of space, time, matter, and energy has not always existed, but was supernaturally created by a transcendent personal Creator who alone has existed from eternity; The phenomenon of biological life did not develop by natural processes from inanimate systems but was specially and supernaturally created by the Creator; The first human beings did not evolve from an animal ancestry, but were specially created in fully human form from the start. Furthermore, the “spiritual” nature of man (self-image, moral consciousness, abstract reasoning, language, will, religious nature, etc.) is itself a supernaturally created entity distinct from mere biological life.”
458.
For an overview of the judicial events procedures, see Flank (2006).
459.
See Stengers (2009); footnote 84.
460.
See Perakh and Young (2006, 195).
461.
Johnson (1991; 1997), Davis and Kenyon (1993), Behe (1996), Dembski (1998, 2003, 2004), Dembski and Witt (2010).
462.
Miller (1999, 99), Young and Edis (2006, 1).
463.
The Discovery Institute (http://www.discovery.org) wants “to promote, as a scientific theory, the idea that life was designed by an intelligence”. Its “work includes a belief in God-given reason.”
464.
The Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center (http://www.ideacenter.org ) “believes that life is not the result of purely natural processes, but that it was in some way designed by an “intelligence” and “that the identity of the designer is the God of the Bible”.
465.
Masci (2009).
466.
Young and Edis (2006, 1).
467.
Kitcher (2007, 8).
468.
Lecointre et al. (2004), Perakh and Young (2006, 185).
469.
Hunt (1998).
470.
Larson (1985), Pennock (1999), Scott (2005), Numbers (2006); See also Gonzalez (2009).
471.
Morris (1984).
472.
Edis (2007, 115–151).
473.
For instance, Alexander (1978), Godfrey (1983), Kitcher (1982, 2007), Dawkins (1986), McKown (1993), Wilson and Dolphin (1996), Pennock (1999), Moore (2002), Manson (2003), Perakh (2003), Forrest and Gross (2004), Shanks (2004), Skybreak (2006), Young and Edis (2006), Shermer (2007), Coyne (2009).
474.
Miller (1999).
475.
Morris (1974), Johnson (1991; 1997; 2002), Behe (1996).
476.
InterAcademy Panel on International Issues (IAP) (2006).
477.
For instance, in 2013, public indignation arose about the decision of the Texas state Board of Education to appoint a review team consisting of a majority of scientifically unqualified creationists to review the science textbooks to be used in public schools for the next decade. (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2013/09/texas_science_textbooks_creationists_try_to_remove_evolution_from_classrooms.2.html).
478.
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life (2007).
479.
Dawkins (2006, 40).
480.
Alper (2006, 195), Lynn et al. (2009); see also Bruce (2002, 219).
481.
For instance, Mickelthwait and Wolldridge (2009, 150) refer in this respect to the internationally well-known inverse relationship between the generosity of the welfare state and the success of religion: the more generous the secular welfare state, the less important become religious-based charities and the demand for religion in general.
482.
For instance, Paul and Zuckerman (2007), Stenger (2009, 231), Delamontagne (2010), Harris (2010), Coyne (2012).
483.
Bruce (2002, 219).
484.
Numbers (2006, 399).
485.
For instance, Anderson and Peacocke (1987), Miller et al. (2006), Blancke (2011), Blancke et al. (2013).
486.
Answers in Genesis (http://www.answersingenesis.org/) is the notorious creationist ministry, founded in 1993 by the Australian Ken Ham, that, as part of its aggressive creationist dissemination strategy, has set up a Creation Museum near Petersburg, Kentucky, which gives an overview of the origins of the universe, life, and mankind based on a literal interpretation of the chapter Genesis in the Bible. The exhibits show that the Earth and all its life forms were created 6000 years ago, over a period of six days and that humans and dinosaurs once coexisted!
487.
Examples of creationist organisations in European countries: UK: The Biblical Creation Society (http://www.biblicalcreation.org/); Netherlands: Mediagroep in Genesis (http://www.schepping ofevolutie.nl/); Belgium: Creabel (http://www.creabel.org/); Germany: Studiengemeinschaft Wort and Wissen (http://www.wort-und-wissen.de/); Italy: Centro Studi Creazionismo (http://www.creazionismo.org); Russia: Russian Creation Science Fellowship; Poland: Polish Creation Society (www.creationism.org.pl).
488.
See Blancke et al. (2013, 2014).
489.
Yahya (2006–2007); see also Yahya (1999).
490.
According to Numbers (2006, 425), also the above mentioned Turkish prolific writer Harun Yahya and the Turkish Science Research Foundation (the Bilim Araştirma Vakfi, or BAV) are playing an active role on the international scene, particularly in the Islamic world, in propagating creationist beliefs and fighting evolution science.
491.
Edis (2006, 11; 2007, 115.)
492.
Edis (2007, 2009); Hameed (2010), Riexinger (2010).
493.
For instance, Nasr (1989, 1994), Bakar (1987, 2003), Shanavas (2005), Yahya (2006–2007), Ghafouri-Fard and Akrami (2011).
494.
For instance, Yahya (2006–2007).
495.
Edis (2007, 23).
496.
For a discussion of this issue, see Vannelli (2001, 1).
497.
Toumey (1993), Pennock (1999).
498.
See for instance, Johnson (1991; 1997), Wiker (2002); for the Muslim world, see the discussion in Edis (2007, 143).
499.
Morris (1984, 110).
500.
Edis (2007, 154).
501.
Orthogenesis is a nineteenth century theory that life evolves in a unidirectional fashion on the basis of an innate driving force (Haacke 1893; Eimer 1898).
502.
Huxley (1927), Dawkins (1986), Russell (1997), Dennett (1995, 2007), Stenger (2008), Stewart (2008).
503.
In this respect Robert Wright (2000, 319) deserves to be quoted: “The kind of God that is hardest to find evidence of is the kind most people seem to believe in: a God that is infinitely powerful and infinitely good.”
504.
See also Wilson (2002, 230).

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Anthropology and Social Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Family Study Centre (CBGS), Flemish Scientific Institute, Brussels, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Social Policy Consultants (PSPC), Brussels, Belgium
Dragana Avramov

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Cliquet, R., Avramov, D. (2018). Adaptive and Maladaptive Features of Religious Beliefs as Sources of Morality. In: Evolution Science and Ethics in the Third Millennium. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_3

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