Abstract
There are higher levels of economic than political freedom in the world. Economic freedom is more widespread, whereas political freedom appears to be more constrained, when referred to as global phenomena. Economic freedom not necessarily requires also political freedom, so there can be economic freedom without political freedom (or a coexistence of higher levels of economic and lower levels of political freedom). In addition, when we talk about global trends, economic freedom also increased faster than political freedom (while political freedom currently stagnates at the global level). So there has been more progress in the world in economic freedom than in political freedom. Political freedom increased only modestly (or even decreased). As a global trend, gender equality increases. This apparently is the case not only for the world in general, but also for OECD and non-OECD countries more specifically. These increases in gender equality are being sharply contrasted by the developments in income equality. For the whole world, a scenario of stagnation in income equality must be stated, and in context of the OECD countries (not only USA, EU15, but also the Nordic countries), income equality even decreases and decreased. So there may be a troublesome tendency be spotted (and asserted), where higher levels of GDP per capita scores actually associate with a downward tendency in income equality.
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Notes
- 1.
The only exceptions here are Mexico and Chile, belonging to the region of Latin America and representing an OECD country at the same time.
- 2.
- 3.
Based on our data and model, this could be asserted at least for the long period of 2002–2016.
- 4.
Concerning freedom in the OECD countries, two countries (country groups) are deviant. The USA expresses a very high degree of economic freedom , while the Nordic countries (and not the USA) demonstrate highest degrees of political freedom (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2). This is the structural “pattern and patterning” of freedom that arises, when the USA and the Nordic countries are being compared.
- 5.
While India has more of income equality , it has less of gender equality .
- 6.
The Nordic countries represent this ideal-typical case and example, where (comparatively) high levels of political freedom perform in parallel with high levels of gender equality as well as income equality . The Nordic countries , therefore, refer to an empirical manifestation of a win-win situation of democracy.
- 7.
PPP is the acronym for: Purchasing Power Parity.
- 8.
Repeating ourselves, non-political sustainable development averages (means) the following indicators (see above): life expectancy at birth (total years), school enrollment tertiary (% gross), Gini Index (issued by the World Bank), Global Gender Gap Index (issued by the World Economic Forum), lower CO2 emission (metric tons per capita) and GDP per capita in PPP (constant 2011 international $).
- 9.
With “good” we mean here above the world average (World 122).
- 10.
- 11.
It is interesting to note that life expectancy in Russia is scoring considerably lower than in China , even so GDP per capita is in Russia higher.
- 12.
Life expectancy is in the EU15 higher than in the Nordic countries .
- 13.
In contrast to “gross”, a term such as “tertiary net school enrollment” would mean that only the enrollment (as a percentage) of specific (predefined) age cohorts would be considered and addressed. As tertiary education (in contrast to secondary education ) is not focusing on predefined age cohorts, the World Bank, in context of the World Development Indicators (World Bank 2018), reports only on “tertiary gross school enrollment”. Approaches and concepts, such as the lifelong learning (LLL), even suggests that tertiary education should be understood as a form of education stretching over a whole life period (at least in principle, but also practically in frequent cases). Requirements of advanced economies (advanced knowledge economies), emphasizing continuous improvements of the knowledge competences of a person (of knowledge workers), play in favor of applying tertiary education to a whole life period. These, however, are also trends that we should expect to become more manifest in the emerging and developing economies of the Newly Industrialized Countries . Knowledge economy or the principles of the knowledge economy are not only reserved to advanced economies or the world of the OECD countries.
- 14.
For the EU28 , income equality is ahead of the OECD average. Regarding GDP per capita , the EU28 performs lower than the OECD average.
- 15.
- 16.
Both of these countries, India as well as China , belong to the country group of Asia 15, as is being defined here for the purpose of our analysis.
- 17.
This is now an assertion, being presented here for discussion, but without a further validation or without cited evidence. Some of the following arguments, however, will leverage this assertion as a point-of-departure for the further analysis. This assertion is based on the subjective perception of the author.
- 18.
The term non-democracy is based on the way, better on the source of “political freedom ” that we apply in our analysis here. According to Freedom House , China represents a “not free” country. Since the beginning of freedom measurement of countries in the year 1972, China has always been categorized as “not free” by Freedom House (http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%20All%20Scores%2C%20Countries%2C%201973-2012%20%28FINAL%29.xls).
- 19.
In contrast to GDP per capita , income inequality is also in Latin America higher than in Asia , China and India (see Fig. 4.4).
- 20.
In the following section, we revisit this proposition, by introducing a wider perspective by also referring to and discussing trends and developments in Russia and in Latin America .
- 21.
Life expectancy in Russia is even lower than the average for Latin America (Fig. 4.9).
- 22.
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Campbell, D.F.J. (2019). Comparative Empirical Analysis of the Non-OECD Countries: Freedom, Equality and Sustainable Development in the Non-OECD Countries (2002–2016). In: Global Quality of Democracy as Innovation Enabler. Palgrave Studies in Democracy, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship for Growth. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72529-1_4
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