Abstract
Appointed to the new Slade Professorship of Art at Oxford in 1870, Ruskin’s lectures influenced a range of young intellectuals destined to become prominent in politics, the empire and the arts. In 1871, he relocated to the Lake District and commenced work on ideas for a back-to-the-land movement, promoted in his monthly series of multi-faceted Letters to the Working Men of England. These revealed his renewed attention to the works of Plato and the influence of non-Christian religions on his natural law views. By 1878 the legal requirements of his social experiment, The Guild of St. George, were met. The literary performances were uneven, complicated by emotional breakdowns.
I heard his lectures and for some time saw him almost everyday. His mobile lips were not yet covered by a beard, and he always wore his precise costume, with an intensely blue neckcloth. His face was that of a man who had seen, and was to see again, hell, as well as paradise.
– Graham Wallas.
On Ruskin at Corpus Christi College.
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- 1.
R.H. Wilenski, John Ruskin: An Introduction to Further Study of His Life and Work (London: Faber, 1933) 99–100; Kenneth Clark, Ruskin at Oxford: An Inaugural Lecture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947).
- 2.
The letters appeared monthly or intermittently between 1871 and 1884, and were published in Works: Volumes 27 through 29.
- 3.
See G.W. Kitchin, Ruskin in Oxford and Other Essays (London: John Murray, 1904), 40.
- 4.
V.A. McClelland, ‘Ruskin’s Apologia’, Downside Review, 255: (1961), 134.
- 5.
Ibid., 128–34; Works, 18: 392–9.
- 6.
Graham Hough, The Last Romantics (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1949), 18.
- 7.
Works, 3: 109–10; 16: 144.
- 8.
Judith Stoddart, ‘The Formation of the working Classes: John Ruskin’s Fors Clavagira as a Manual of Cultural Literacy’ in Patrick Scott and Pauline Fletcher, eds. Culture and Education in Victorian England (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1990), 43–58; Dinah Birch, Ruskin’s Multiple Writing: Fors Clavigera’ in Birch, ed. (1999), 179.
- 9.
Ibid., 129.
- 10.
Fors Clavagira, Letter 62, cited in McClelland (1961), 129.
- 11.
Reflection on Ruskin’s mental health commenced well before his death and has not ceased. Wilenski published a chart outlining the pattern of the highs of Ruskin’s creative periods and the lows of his acute depressions. See Wilenski (1933), 15–24. Recent commentaries include: P.A. Kempster and J.E. Alty, ‘John Ruskin’s relapsing encephalopathy’, Brain, 131 (2008), 2520–25; James L. Spates, ‘Ruskin’s Dark Night of the Soul: A Reconsideration of His Mental Illness and the Importance of Accurate Diagnosis’, Journal of Pre-Raphaelite Studies, N.S. 18 (Spring, 2009), 18–58.
- 12.
On Ruskin’s publishing ventures, see Mark Frost, The Lost Companions and John Ruskin’s Guild of St George: A Revisionary History (London: Antham Press, 2014), 63–65.
- 13.
Ruskin to Ellis, July, 1870, in Works, 37: 12.
- 14.
See his Introduction to Robert G. Sillar, Usury, An Allegory: Pernicious Effects on English Agriculture and Commerce. (London: 1885). See also Collet, (1946), 23–33.
- 15.
On Ruskin’s mental health episodes in his later years, see Tim Hilton, John Ruskin: The Later Years (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), Chapters 23, 31–33.
- 16.
A number of recent writers have sought to find in Fors Clavagira coherent trains of thought. See Dinah Birch, ‘Ruskin’s Multiple Writings: Fors Clavigera’ in Birch, ed. (1999), 175–87; Francis O’Gorman, ‘Do Good Work, Whether You Live or Die’ in O’Gorman (2001), 81–95.
- 17.
See Works, 15: 333–485 and 31: 105–28. On Ruskin’s essay, see J.C.A. Rathmell, ‘Explorations and Recoveries–1: Hopkins, Ruskin and the Sidney Psalter’ The London Magazine, 6 (9): (1959), 51–66.
- 18.
E.T. Cook, ed. Studies in Ruskin (London: G. Allen, 1890), 44.
- 19.
Attributed to J.H. Whitehouse, cited in Quentin Bell, Ruskin (New York: George Brazziler, 1978), 100; See also Henry W. Traunt, Matthew Arnold’s ‘Scholar-Gypsy’ and Thyrsis and the Country they Illustrate (Oxford: Henry W. Traunt, 1910), 84–92.
- 20.
For photographs and commentary on this episode, see Henry W. Traunt, Matthew Arnold’s ‘Scholar-Gypsy’ and Thyrsis and the Country they Illustrate (Oxford: Henry W. Traunt, 1910).
- 21.
On his loss of feeling for nature, see Rosenberg (1961), 25–28.,
- 22.
Lawrence Goldman, John Ruskin and the Working Classes in Mid-Victorian Britain’ in Keith Hanley and Brian Maidment, eds. (2013), 25.
- 23.
St. Mark’s Rest was his late historical reverie on Venice. Works, 24: 191–400.
- 24.
Alexander Bradley, Ruskin and Italy (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987), 20–21.
- 25.
Bradley (1987), 13 ; Ruskin to Carlyle , 26 July, 1874, in Cate, ed. (1982), 207–8.
- 26.
Works, 2; 233; 4: 352; 12: 240–43; 12: 213–23; 24: 1–123.
- 27.
Works, 4: xx, xxix; Dearden (2012), 318–19; Cooper (2010), 58.
- 28.
Works, 23: 43, 63; 34: 353.
- 29.
See ‘Pax Vobiscum’, Chapter 5 of Val D’Arno, Works, 23: On the early guilds of Florence , see Nicholas Rubinstein, ‘The Beginnings of Humanism in Florence’ in Denys Hay, ed., The Age of the Renaissance (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 30–31.
- 30.
Ruskin to J.J. Ruskin , 24. Aug. 1845, in Harold Shapiro, ed., Ruskin In Italy: Letters to this Parents 1845 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 183–86.
- 31.
Ibid. For the complete letter, see Appendix 2 of this study.
- 32.
Ruskin to Ward , 1855, in Works, 36: 185–86. For their correspondence, see John Ruskin’s Letters to William Ward: With a Short Biography of William Ward (Boston: Marshall Jones Company, 1922).
- 33.
Works, 16: 97–8.
- 34.
Ruskin, Diary, Dec. 4, 1843, in Works, 3: 653n; Dearden (2012), 323.
- 35.
See David M. Craig , Robert Southey and Romantic Apostasy: Political Argument in Britain, 1780–1840. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2007), 181–85; Jonathan Mendilow, The Romantic Tradition in British Political Thought (London: Croom Helm, 1986), Ch. 2.
- 36.
Works, 16: 172; Hill to Mary Harris, Nov. 1, 1858, in Emily S. Maurice, ed., Octavia Hill: Early Ideals (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1928), 140–41.
- 37.
See Peter Clayon, Octavia Hill (Wisbech: Wisbech Society and Preservation Trust, 1993), 11–13; William Thomson Hill, Octavia Hill:Pioneer of the National Trust and Housing Reformer (London: Hutchinson, 1956), Ch. 4; Works, 17: cx; 19: xxiv–v; 27: 175–6.
- 38.
See Maurice, ed. (1928), 115–208. The collection of letters also include several by Hill to Mary Harris containing accounts of Ruskin.
- 39.
See ‘Letters to an unnamed correspondent’, May 15 and 21, 1867, cited in Wilenski (1933), 88. This was presumably Thomas Dixon. On Livesy see, Olive Wilson, ed., My Dearest Dora: Letters to Dora Livesey, Her Family and Friends from John Ruskin, 1860–1900 (NP: 1984).
- 40.
Works, 17: 328.
- 41.
Biographical details for Bradley are few, for reasons given by the philosopher G.R.G. Mure in his memoir. See his ‘F.H. Bradley’, Encounter, 16 (1): (1961), 28–35. On the strengths and weaknesses of Bradley’s anti-utilitarianism, see Anthony Quinton, Utiltarian Ethics (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973), 93–97.
- 42.
F.H. Bradley , ‘My Station and Its Duties’ in Ethical Studies: Selected Essays (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1951), 98–147.
- 43.
Cook, ed. (1890), 44–6.
- 44.
On Rawnsley and Collingwood
, see Vicky A. Jonsson and Fredrik A. Jonsson Green Victorians: The Simple Life in John Ruskin’s Lake District (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), Ch. 5.
- 45.
Carroll Quigley, The Anglo-American Establishment (San Pedro: GSC Associates, 1981), Ch. 4. See also Alexander May, The Round Table, 1910–66. (Oxford: D.Phil. Thesis, 1995), and George R. Parkin, Imperial Federation: The Problem of National Unity (London: Macmillan, 1892).
- 46.
Quigley (1981), 10.
- 47.
See ‘The Future of England’ (1869), a supplement to The Crown of Wild Olive. Works, 18: 494–514; and ‘Inaugural Lectures’ (1870), Works, 20: 1–179.
- 48.
Ronald Robinson, ‘Oxford in Imperial Historiography’ in Frederick Madden and D.K. Fieldhouse, eds. Oxford and the Idea of Commonwealth (London: Croom Helm, 1982), 30–48.
- 49.
Elizabeth T. McLaughlin, Ruskin and Gandhi (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1974), 23–31, 82–90.
- 50.
A.P. d’Entrèves , Natural Law: An Introduction to Legal Philosophy. Rev. ed. (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1994), 111.
- 51.
See G.R. Elton , England Under the Tudors (London: Methuen, 1969), 401, 403, 427.
- 52.
Alexander S. Rosenthal, Crown Under Law: Richard Hooker, John Locke and the Ascent of Modern Constitutionalism (Plymouth: Lexington Press, 2008), 113–19; Peter Munz, The Place of Hooker in the History of Thought (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1971), Ch. 2.
- 53.
Munz (1971), 87 –9.
- 54.
See Cornelis Augustijn, Erasmus: His Life, Works and Influence (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), Ch. 11.
- 55.
See Works, 23: 378.
- 56.
Richard F. Jones, Ancients and Moderns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961).
- 57.
See Norberto Bobbio, Thomas Hobbes and the Natural Law Tradition. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Ch. 5; Peter J. Stanlis, Edmund Burke and the Natural Law (Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press, 1965), 16–27.
- 58.
See Elie Halévy, The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955).
- 59.
See Jacques Maritain, Existence and the Existent (New York: Pantheon, 1948); The Rights of Man and Natural Law (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1951).
- 60.
Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. Rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1994), 253–58.
- 61.
See H.A.L. Hart, The Concept of Law, 2nd. ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 193–200.
- 62.
Works, 17: 350–51.
- 63.
See Frank M. Turner, The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 17, 41–2.
- 64.
Ruskin was reading Müller by at least 1865. Works, 18: 69, 288. On his meeting with Müller and Emerson, see Ruskin to Max Müller, 4 May, 1873, in Bodleian Library, Oxford, Ruskin Papers. Western Manuscripts; On Lubbock , see Works, 20: xxxvii–xxxviii. See Works, 37: 405, 590–91. On Tylor see Works, 28: 613–14.
- 65.
Works, 18: 42. On Grotius and his assertion that natural law would have to exist, even if God did not, see d’Entrèves , (1994), 54; see also the discussion in Brian Tierney, The Idea of Natural Rights (Grand Rapids, 2001), 319–24.
- 66.
On this question see Wheeler, Ruskin’s God (2001), Ch. 9. The point was emphasized again in 1882 in his ‘Statement’ on the purposes of the Guild. Works, 30: 58–9.
- 67.
Val D’Arno, in Works, 23: 128–33.
- 68.
Works, 23: 132. The passage from Kant appears in the conclusion of The Critique of Practical Reason (1788).
- 69.
See Jonathan Israel, A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), Ch. 5.
- 70.
Works, 12: 176–79; 11:11; 28: 654.
- 71.
Works, 7: 361 and n. 2. On Digby see Mark Girouard, The Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), Ch. 5.
- 72.
Works, 17: 439; 18: 484, 499.
- 73.
See William Smart, John Ruskin: His Life and Work (Glasgow: Wilson and McCormick 1880), and A Disciple of Plato: A Critical Study of John Ruskin (Glasgow: Wilson and McCormick, 1883).
- 74.
Works, 3: 284; 11: 178–9.
- 75.
Iris Murdoch, The Sovereignty of Good (London: Routledge, 1970) 58–66, 83–87. See also O’Hear (2009).
- 76.
Works, 29: 233–47; Plato , Republic 424b–c.
- 77.
For Ruskin on Mendelssohn , see Works, 22: xli, 497.
- 78.
Works, 17: 368; 19: 176, 344; 29: 230–31.
- 79.
R.G. Collingwood , Ruskin’s Philosophy (Kendal: Titus Wilson, 1922); Reprinted in Alan Donagan, ed., Essays in the Philosophy of Art (Bloomington: University of Illinois Press, 1964), 3–42.
- 80.
Works, 1: xxxv–xxxvi; Letters to a College Friend, 418–19; Katherine Gilbert, ‘Ruskin’s Relation to Aristotle’ Philosophical Review, 49 (1):, (1940), 52–62.
- 81.
See Works, 16: Addenda: ‘Fatherly Authority’, 105–9; Willie Henderson, John Ruskin’s Political Economy (London: Routledge, 2000), Ch. 5.
- 82.
See Basil Willey, More Nineteenth Century Studies: A Group of Honest Doubters (New York: Columbia University Press 1977); Geoffrey Clive, The Romantic Enlightenment (New York: Meridian, 1960).
- 83.
See Hilton (2001), 325–31.
- 84.
His starkest formulation appeared in a letter to The Scotsman, 6 May, 1886. Arrows of the Chase, Works, 34: 594.
- 85.
Plato , Laws, vii. 803, 804, cited in Fors Clavigera, Letter 82 (1877), Works, 29: 233, n. 3.
- 86.
Works, 29: 233–4.
- 87.
Works, 29: 234.
- 88.
Ibid.
- 89.
Works, 29: 230–31, 235–44.
- 90.
See the general discussion in R.S. White, Natural Law in English Renaissance Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Ch. 1.
- 91.
Works: 28: 30.
- 92.
Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 229–32.
- 93.
Shirley Letwin ‘Nature, History and Morality’ in Peters, ed. (1975), 229–50.
- 94.
John C.H. Wu, ‘The Natural Law and Our Common Law’ Fordham Law Review, 23 (1): (1954), 13–48.
- 95.
Cited in Wu (1954), 24.
- 96.
David B. Quinn, The Elizabethans and the Irish (Ithica: Cornell University Press, 1966), Chapters 2 and 10; Brendan Kane, ‘Elizabeth on rebellion in Ireland and England: semper eadem?’ in Brendan Kane and Valerie McGowan-Doyle, eds. Elizabeth I and Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 261–85.
- 97.
See W.J. Torrance Kirby, Richard Hooker’s Doctrine of the Royal Supremacy (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990), 41 f.
- 98.
On these questions, see A.J. Joyce, Richard Hooker and Anglican Moral Theology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 87, 150–58.
- 99.
David B. McIlhiney, ‘The Protestantism of the Caroline Divines’, Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 44 (2): (1975), 143–154.
- 100.
Works, 1: 409; On Ruskin and Taylor see Dearden (2012), 335, and Works, 11: 47 n.
- 101.
McIlhiney (1975), 145.
- 102.
See John L. Idol, Jr. Ruskin and Herbert, George Herbert Journal, 4(1): (1980), 11–28.
- 103.
See Douglas Bush, Science and English Poetry: A Historical Sketch, 1590–1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950), Ch. 2.
- 104.
See Michael C. Schoenfeldt, Prayer and Power: George Herbert and Renaissance Courtship (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
- 105.
Dr. Johnson , cited in Quinton (1982), 9.
- 106.
Quinton (1982), 10.
- 107.
- 108.
See H.R. McAdoo, ‘Anglican Moral Theology in the Seventeenth Century: An Anticipation’ in Paul Elmen, ed. The Anglican Moral Choice (Wilton: Morehouse-Barlow, Inc., 1983), 33–64.
- 109.
See the lucid exploration of the problems posed by Hobbes and Locke for natural law theory and its more recent interpretation, in Rosenthal (2008), 267–306.
- 110.
See the informative discussion in Francis O’Gorman, ‘The Eagle and the Whale’ in Wheeler, ed. (1996), 45–64.
- 111.
Deucalion was published between 1879 and 1883 and is printed in Works, 26: 95–370.
- 112.
Works, 26: 333–4.
- 113.
Ibid.
- 114.
Ibid., 334.
- 115.
Ibid., 334–6.
- 116.
Ibid., 336.
- 117.
Ibid., 336–7. The novel was Un Cure du Docteur Portalais by Robert Halt (pen name of Charles Vieu).
- 118.
Ibid., 337–8.
- 119.
Ibid., 338.
- 120.
See also the commentary in Paul Wilson, ‘Over Yonder are the Andes’ in Wheeler, ed., (1996), 65–84.
- 121.
Works, 26: 344.
- 122.
Ibid., 369–70.
- 123.
Ibid., 343.
- 124.
Ibid., 338–9.
- 125.
Douglas W. Freshfield, The Life of Horace Benedict Saussure (London: Edward Arnold, 1920), Ch. 17.
- 126.
Works, 26: 344.
- 127.
Ibid., 344–5.
- 128.
See Wilson, in Wheeler, ed. (1996), 82.
- 129.
Francis Watson, ‘The Devil and Mr. Ruskin’, Encounter, 38 (6): (1972), 64–70.
- 130.
See Roshenthal (2008) 289–306; Crowe (1977), 237–42.
- 131.
In 1884 the identity of the author was finally revealed as Robert Chambers of Edinburgh. C.C. Gillispie , Genesis and Geology: The Impact of Scientific Discoveries Upon Religious Beliefs in the Decades Before Darwin (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), Ch. 6; Dearden (2012), 67.
- 132.
Cited in Henry Ladd, The Victorian Morality of Art (New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith Inc., 1932), 149–50; and see Gillispie (1959), 112–13; Ruskin, Works, 26: 243 n.
- 133.
Works, 16: 25; 17: 243.
- 134.
Footnote references to Ruskin’s writings (unless otherwise stated) are cited as Works, and refer to Cook, Edward T. and Wedderburn, Alexander, eds. The Collected Works of John Ruskin. London: 1903–1912. 39 v.
Bibliography
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MacDonald, G.A. (2018). Towards Pluralism: Oxford Teaching and Natural Law: 1870–77. In: John Ruskin's Politics and Natural Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72281-8_6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72281-8_6
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