The Revolutionary Theater of Power: Precedence and Etiquette

Frey, Linda; Frey, Marsha

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71709-8_4

Linda Frey⁶ &
Marsha Frey⁷

Part of the book series: Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations ((SID))

271 Accesses

Abstract

The revolution repudiated the ceremonial associated with the old regime and permeated by the aristocratic code. In particular the revolutionaries attacked both precedence and etiquette. They derided what Rousseau deemed the “perfidious veil of politeness.” Perfect politeness could be nothing but a “sign of corruption.” Practical considerations and ideological constraints led the revolutionaries to erect a new theater of power. The struggle between the old and the new was enacted on this symbolic battleground. Predictably, many revolutionary diplomats deliberately and impudently broke the formerly accepted rules of diplomatic conduct. The revolutionaries saw the new ceremony as legitimating the revolution and underlining its power. The reshaping of diplomatic procedures in the revolutionary mold, however, underscored and widened the gulf between France and the rest of Europe.

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Notes

1.
Norbert Elias, The Court Society, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 117–118.
2.
Patrice Higonnet, Goodness Beyond Virtue, Jacobins during the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 80.
3.
Napoleon to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Rastatt, 30 November 1797, quoted in Napoleon, Napoleon Self-Revealed, edited by J. M. Thompson (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934), 52–53.
4.
Jeroen Duindam , Vienna and Versailles: The Courts of Europe’s Dynastic Rivals, 1550–1780 (Cambridge: University Press, 2003), 181. See also Ute Daniel, “Überlegungen zum höfischen Fest der Barockzeit,” Niedersächisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte 72 (2000): 45–66; Benjamin Marschke, “‘Von dem am Königl. Preussischen Hofe abgeschafften Ceremoniel’: Monarchical Representation and Ceremony in Frederick William I’s Prussia,” in Orthodoxies and Diversity in Early Modern Germany, ed. Randolph C. Head and Daniel Christensen, 227–252 (Boston : Brill Publishers, 2007); Milos Vec, Zeremonial-Wissenschaft im Fürstenstaat: Studien zur juristischen und politischen Theorie absolutischer Herrschaftsrepräsentation (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1998) and Barbara von Stollberg-Rilinger, “Zeremoniell, Ritual, Symbol: Neue Forschungen zur symbolischen Kommunikation im Spätmittelater und Früher Neuzeit,” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 27 (2000): 389–405.
5.
Cannadine, “Introduction: Divine Rites of Kings,” in Rituals of Royalty: Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies, ed. Cannadine and Price, 3.
6.
Edmund Burke, “A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly in Answer to Some Objection to His Book on French Affairs,” in Works of Right Honourable Edmund Burke, 1791 Reprint (London: Bohn, 1855), 2: 537.
7.
Elias, The Court Society, 86–87.
8.
Jean Jacques Rousseau , The First and Second Discourses, edited by Roger D. Masters (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1964), 36. Art, he fulminated, “molded our manner and taught our passions to speak an affected language. ” Ibid., 37.
9.
Ibid., 39 and 37.
10.
Jean Jacques Rousseau , Discourse on the Origins and Foundations of Inequality among Men (New York: Pocket Books, 1971), 180. Also see Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees or Private Vices, Publick Benefits (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957), 1: 349.
11.
Quoted in Clark, Compass of Society, 297.
12.
Darnton, “The French Revolution: Intellectuals and Literature.”
13.
Edmund Burke , The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, vol. 9 edited by William B. Todd (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), “Fourth Letter on a Regicide Peace,” 14.
14.
Muir , Ritual in Early Modern Europe, 125.
15.
Norbert Elias , The History of Manners, The Civilizing Process, State Formation and Civilization, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982), 315.
16.
A. A. E. C.P., État Unis, vol. 54, part 2, fol. 92, Pichon , Georgetown, 26 pluviôse, an 10.
17.
Edmund Burke , “Letters on a Regicide Peace,” in The Works, 5: 208.
18.
Gerald W. Chapman, Edmund Burke : The Practical Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), 202.
19.
Edmund Burke , “A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly in Answer to Some Objection to His Book on French Affairs,” in The Works of Right Honourable Edmund Burke (London: Bohn, 1855), 2: 537.
20.
Edmund Burke , Reflections on the Revolution in France (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1968), 172.
21.
Burke , “A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly in Answer to Some Objection to His Book on French Affairs,” in The Works, 2: 537.
22.
Bertrand Barère , Memoirs of Bertrand Barère Chairman of the Committee of Public Safety During the Revolution, translated by De V. Payen-Payne (London: H.S. Nichols, 1796) 1: 309–310. Perhaps unconsciously he echoed Fénelon’s warning that two things endanger “the government of peoples.” The first, unjust authority could be checked even if by a coup but luxury “which corrupts manners” was “almost incurable.” Kings could be corrupted by excess authority, but luxury “empoisons a whole people.” (Quoted in Sonenscher, Before the Deluge, 106.
23.
Quoted in Elias , The Court Society, 117–118. Also see Peter Burke, The Fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
24.
Elias , The Court Society, 71, 207.
25.
Ibid., 207–208.
26.
Quoted in ibid., 231.
27.
Quoted in Belissa , “La Diplomatie et les traités dans la pensées des lumières,” 297.
28.
François de Callières , Letters (1694–1700) of Francois de Callières to the Marquise d’Huxelles, edited by Laurence Pope (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004), 228.
29.
In Henry V, act iv, scene 1, he asks: “And what have kings, that privates have not too? Save ceremony , save general ceremony ?” Quoted in Cannadine, “Introduction: Divine Rites of Kings,” in Rituals of Royalty, ed. Cannadine and Price, 1.
30.
Belissa , “La Diplomatie et les traités dans la pensée des lumières,” 306.
31.
Comte F.-G. de Bray , Memoires du comte de Bray (Paris: Plon Nourrit et Cie., 1911), 103.
32.
Ibid., 109, 111, 120.
33.
The British minister to Russia , Alleyene Fitzherbert , confided to his sister that the time he spent with the empress at a country house as part of her private society, not as the British representative, was “so much more agreeable … we were not troubled with the smallest degree of ceremony and etiquette.” Derbyshire Record Office, Papers of Alleyne Fitzherbert , D/239M/F12338 to his sister, St. Petersburgh [sic], 23 August 1785.
34.
Robert Oresko , “The House of Savoy in Search for a Royal Crown in the Seventeenth Century.” In Royal and Republican Sovereignty in Early Modern Europe, edited by Robert Oresko , G. C. Gibbs, and H. M. Scott, 273–350 (Cambridge: University Press, 1997), 274.
35.
For a vivid discussion, see Lucien Bély , “Souveraineté et souverains: la question du cérémonial dans les relations internationales à l’époque moderne,” Annuaire-bulletin de la Société de l’histoire de France 130 (1993): 27–43.
36.
Hamish M. Scott, “Diplomatic Culture in Old Regime Europe, in Cultures of Power in Europe During the Long Eighteenth Century, edited by Hamish Scott and Brendan Simms (Cambridge: University Press, 2007), 59–60.
37.
Jacques-Pierre dit Brissot de Warville, Discours sur l’office de l’Empereur du 17 février 1792 et dénonciation contre M. Delessart, ministre des Affaires étrangères prononcé à l’Assemblée nationale le 10 Mars 1792 by J. P. Brissot , député du département de Paris (Paris: Imprimerie. Nationale, n.d.), 28.
38.
Barthélemy , Papiers de Barthélemy, 2: 417.
39.
Arno Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 136.
40.
Vattel , The Law of Nations, 149.
41.
H. G. Koenigsberger, “Republicanism, Monarchism and Liberty.” In Royal and Republican Sovereignty in Early Modern Europe, edited by Robert Oresko , G. C. Gibbs, and H. M. Scott, 43–74 (Cambridge: University Press, 1997), 57.
42.
Oresko . “The House of Savoy in Search for a Royal Crown in the Seventeenth Century,” in Royal and Republican Sovereignty, ed. Gibbs, Oresko , and Scott, 294.
43.
Ibid., 342.
44.
The jurist Georg Friedrich von Martens , whose treatise appeared in French in 1789, included an extensive section on precedence. George Friedrich Martens , Summary of the Law of Nations (Philadelphia: Thomas Bradford, 1795), 136–144.
45.
Jeremy Black , British Diplomats and Diplomacy, 1688–1800 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2001), 97.
46.
Duindam , Vienna and Versailles, 184.
47.
Cited in Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System 1740–1815, 124.
48.
Duindam , Vienna and Versailles, 187.
49.
Jean Baptiste Colbert, Journal inédit de Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy , edited by Frédéric Masson (Paris: Plon Nourrit, 1884), xiii–xiv.
50.
Bély , “Souveraineté et souverain, 41.
51.
Aulard, Recueil des actes du comité de salut public, 4: 476.
52.
Barthélemy , Papiers de Barthélemy, 2: 290–294; François-Alphonse Aulard., ed. “Instructions générales des agents diplomatiques de la République française, 1er juin 1793,” La Révolution française 13 (1887): 66–73.
53.
Moniteur 24: 294, 26 April 1795, 4 floréal.
54.
P.R.O., FO 5/4, fol. 101, Executive Council, at Paris, 4 January 1793. The Correspondence between Citizen Genet, Minister of the French Republic, to the United States of North America and the Officers of the Federal Government; to which are prefixed the Instructions from the Constituted Authorities of France to the Said Minister. All from Authentic Documents (Philadelphia: Benjamin Franklin Bache, 1793).
55.
N.A., General Records of the Department of State, RG59, Diplomatic Despatches, France (34), vol. 4, James Monroe to the Secretary of State (Paris, 6 December 1795).
56.
Boccardi’s dispatch of 20 November 1795 quoted in Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 92, fn 1.
57.
Vattel , The Law of Nations, 149.
58.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 89.
59.
Hermann Hüffer, Der Rastatter Congress und die zweite Coalition (Bonn: Adolph Marcus, 1878), 1: 254.
60.
Dry, Soldats ambassadeurs, 375–376 and Hüffer, Der Rastatter Congress, Chap. 9, esp. 254–55.
61.
Pickering responded that private publications were not under government control and, moreover, that “it was not for his Government to determine questions of rank among foreign powers.” Beckles Willson, Friendly Relations: A Narrative of Britain’s Ministers and Ambassadors to America (1791–1930) (Boston : Little, Brown and Company, 1934), 20.
62.
Correspondance de Napoléon I (Paris: Henri Plon, 1859), 2: 489, Napoleon to Directors, Leoben, 27 germinal, an V (16 April 1797).
63.
Hüffer, ed., Quellen zur Geschichte des Zeitalters der französischen Revolution, 463, Cobenzl to Thugut , Udine, 18 October 1797.
64.
R. B. Mowat, The Diplomacy of Napoleon (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1924), 34.
65.
Ibid., 35.
66.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 688.
67.
Correspondance de Napoléon I, 3: 73, Napoleon to Directors, 8 prairial, an V (27 May 1797).
68.
As late as 1811 the French representative to Russia underscored that he had been given a seat on the same side as the tsar. Moreover, his audience of leave had followed the same ceremonial as his presentation. Like a diplomat of the ancien régime, he had been given the customary gift of a portrait in diamonds. Nicolas Mikhailowitch, Les Relations diplomatiques de la Russie et de la France d’après les rapports des ambassadeurs d’Alexandre et de Napoléon. (Petrograde: Manufacture des papiers de l’Etat, 1907), 5: 305, letter of 4 February 1811. As late as 1812 the government in Paris sanctioned the decision of the French representative in Naples to fight a duel with his Russian counterpart over precedence. Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740–1815, 124.
69.
Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time vol. 4: Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (Boston : Little Brown and Company, 1970), 385.
70.
Ibid., 386, Thomas Jefferson to William Short, 23 January 1804.
71.
Ibid., 385.
72.
Ibid., 386–387.
73.
Lucien Bély , La Socì̀été des princes: XVIe–XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 1999), 406 and 396.
74.
Bély , “Souveraineté et souverains,” 43 and 28.
75.
Ibid., 28 and 35. See also Daniel “Überlegungen zum höfischen Fest der Barockzeit,” 45–66 and Stollberg-Rilinger, “Zeremoniell, Ritual, Symbol,” 389–405.
76.
Bély , La Société des princes, 10.
77.
David A. Bell , The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 148.
78.
Muir , Ritual in Early Modern Europe, 120.
79.
François, duc de La Rochefoucauld , Maximes suivies des réflexions diverses (Paris: Editions Garnier Frères, 1967), 68 #260.
80.
Ibid., 67 #260; 93 #393; 29 #100; 89– #372. Also see François, duc de La Rochefoucauld , Maxims (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1959), intro. and 68, 83, 47, 81.
81.
“The practice of honest dissimulation,” as Jon Snyder has argued, “was dialectically linked to the Old Regime culture of display and observation.” Jon R. Snyder, Dissimulation and the Culture of Secrecy in Early Modern Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 47. Interestingly enough, Callières , who wrote the foundational text on ancien régime diplomacy, argued in 1696 that that very bel esprit, the manners and wit of the court, “makes people ill-suited to the conduct of public business.” Callières , Letters (1694–1700), 14. See Francois de Callières , Du bel esprit (Amsterdam: Pierre Brunel, 1695), 151.
82.
Shakespeare, Cymbelline, I, I, 84, quoted in Snyder, Dissimulation and the Culture of Secrecy in Early Modern Europe, 33.
83.
Blanning , The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture, 5.
84.
Condorcet , Oeuvres, 10: 399–400.
85.
Quoted in Stanley J. Idzerda, “Inconoclasm during the French Revolution,” American Historical Review 60 (July 1955): 15.
86.
Quoted in Leora Auslander, Cultural Revolutions: Everyday Life and Politics in Britain, North America and France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009), 113.
87.
Miles , The Correspondence of William Augustus Miles, 1: 159 Miles to Lord Rodney, Paris, 23 August 1790.
88.
Great Britain, HMC, The Manuscripts of J. B. Fortescue, Esq., Preserved at Dropmore (London: By Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1894), 1: 608, 610. Also see BL Add. Mss. 58910 to Grenville, Paris, 27 Sept. 1790, fol. 142.
89.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 37, Paris, 10 December1795.
90.
Raymond Cohen , Theatre of Power: The Art of Diplomatic Signalling (New York: Longman, 1987), 90–91.
91.
Der Derian, On Diplomacy, 179.
92.
Geoffrey de Grandmaison, L’Ambassade française en Espagne, 37, 50, 51.
93.
Ibid., 39–43 and 53.
94.
Henri Stroehlin, La Mission de Barthélemy en Suisse (1792–1797) (Geneva: Henry Kundig, 1900), 23 and 56.
95.
B. L., Add. Mss. 36813, from Bute at Madrid , 30 April 1796 to Grenville .
96.
Michaud, Biographie universelle, 2: 576–577.
97.
Dictionnaire de biographie française, edited by J. Balteau, Michel Prévost, and Roman d’Amat (Paris: Libraire LeTouzey et Ané, 1933–) 6: 843.
98.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 429–430, Report of Caillard from Berlin , 1 Nov. 1795.
99.
Report of Caillard from Berlin , 28 March 1797, in ibid., 1: 457.
100.
Archives parlementaires 52: 314, 4 October 1792.
101.
A. N., DXXIII, carton 2 dossier 34, Society of the Friends of the Constitution at Cherbourg to the Diplomatic Committee, 2 September 1792.
102.
Brissot , Discours de J. P. Brissot , député sur les dispostions des puissances étrangères, 43.
103.
Iiams, Peacemaking from Vergennes to Napoleon, 59. As late as 1801, Joseph Bonaparte told Charles Cornwallis (1738–1805), the British plenipotentiary at the congress of Amiens , that he was “a stranger to the arts of negotiation and would not attempt to carry any points by the cunning of chicanery.” He thought that Cornwallis with his “line of life,” presumably a reference to his military career, would welcome such an approach. P.R.O., FO 27/59 Cornwallis to Hawkesbury, Paris, 26 November 1801.
104.
J. Holland Rose, William Pitt and the Great War, 1911 reprint (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1971), 79.
105.
Frank L. Kidner, Jr. The Girondists and the “Propaganda War” of 1792: A Re-evaluation of French Revolutionary Foreign Policy from 1791 to 1793, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation Princeton University, 1971, 396.
106.
B. L., Add. Mss. 59051, fols. 34–37, to Dorset, Paris, 16 March 1792.
107.
Ibid., 118–123.
108.
Ibid., 116–123.
109.
Grandmaison, L’Ambassade française en Espagne, 165.
110.
Brissot , Rapport fait au nom du comité de défense générale, 3.
111.
Malmesbury Papers, Merton College, Oxford F3.3 (3) 86, letter of August 16, 1794.
112.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 670.
113.
Raymond Koechlin, “La Politique française au congrès de Rastatt,” Annales de l’école libre des sciences politiques, 1 (1886): 404.
114.
Pallain, ed. Le Ministère de Talleyrand sous le Directoire, 211–212, Talleyrand to Treilhard , 27 February 1798.
115.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 672–673.
116.
Koechlin “La Politique française au congrès de Rastatt,” 404, letter of 25 December 1797.
117.
Brendan Simms, The Impact of Napoleon: Prussian High Politics, Foreign Policy and the Crisis of the Executive 1797–1806 (Cambridge: University Press, 1997), 93.
118.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 214, fn. 1.
119.
Armand François, comte de Allonville, Mémoires tirés des papiers d’un homme d’état sur les causes secrètes qui ont déterminé la politique des cabinets dans les guerres de la révolution (Paris: Michaud, 1832), 6: 179.
120.
John Harold Clapham, The Abbé Sièyes: An Essay in the Politics of the French Revolution. (London: P. S. King and Son, 1912), 206–207.
121.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 716–717.
122.
Mann , Secretary of Europe, 45.
123.
Clapham, The Abbé Sièyes, 210.
124.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 717–719 and Mann , Secretary of Europe, 45.
125.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 717–719.
126.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 234, Graf Haugwitz to Graf Finckenstein, Berlin , 25 August 1798.
127.
Finkenstein quoted in Lothar Kittstein, Politik im Zietalter der Revolution: Untersuchungen zur preussischen Staatlichkeit 1792–1807 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2003), 142.
128.
Clapham, The Abbé Sièyes, 208.
129.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 500–501, report of Sièyes to Talleyrand, Berlin , 24 May 1799.
130.
Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime, 137.
131.
Edmund Burke , “Four Letters on the Proposals for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France” in Burke Select Works, edited by E. J. Payne (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1894), xxxviii.
132.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/3/3, to his wife from Sir James Harris , husband October 16, 1796.
133.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 266, Harris to Grenville , Paris, 23 October 1796.
134.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/3/8, Harris to his wife, Calais , 18 October 1796.
135.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/3/9, Harris to his wife, 21 October 1796.
136.
Aulard, Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne et sous le Directoire, 3: 542.
137.
B. L., Add. Mss. 59130, fol. 6–10. Draft of instructions for Harris , 1796.
138.
P.R.O., FO 27/46 fol. 231, Harris to Lord Grenville , 28 November 1796.
139.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 266, Harris to Grenville , Paris, 23 October 1796.
140.
Ibid., 3: 353, Harris to Grenville , Paris, 20 December 1796.
141.
Ibid., 3: 269. Harris to Grenville , Paris, 27 October 1796.
142.
Edmund B. d’Auvergne, Envoys Extraordinary: the Remarkable careers of Some Remarkable British Representatives Abroad (London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1937), 73–74.
143.
Bailleu ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 104, Sandoz-Rollin from Paris, 14 November 1796.
144.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 484, 27 August 1797.
145.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/3/11, Harris to his wife, Paris, 27 October 1796.
146.
Ibid., 631/3/10, Harris to his wife, 25 October 1796.
147.
Ibid., 631/3/12, to his wife from Sir James Harris , husband, Paris, 31 October 1796.
148.
Malmesbury Papers, Merton College, Oxford F3.3 (3) 13, letter of 23 October 1796.
149.
Ibid., F3.3 (1) 166, letter of 3 July 1797.
150.
Ibid., F3.3 (1) 167, letter of 5 July 1797.
151.
P.R.O., FO, 27/49 fol. 206, 29 June 1797.
152.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/4/13 Harris to his wife, 20 September 1797.
153.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 521, 31 August 1797.
154.
P.R.O., FO 27/50, fol. 316–317, Harris , 19 September 1797.
155.
Ibid., 3: 560, 17 September 1797.
156.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 539, 3: 592, 11 and 29 September 1797.
157.
Ibid., 3: 527, Lille 11 September 1797.
158.
Malmesbury Papers, Merton College, Oxford F3.3 (3)29i, letter of [1797?].
159.
Scott, “Diplomatic Culture in Old Regime Europe,” 83.
160.
Gower, Private Correspondence, 1: 174, Granville to Lady Stafford, 21 September 1797. Also see National Library of Ireland, letters from Bristol to Hamilton, 14 July 1797: “No one hopes anything from the Farsical congress at Lisle.”
161.
Hampshire Record Office, 631/5/5 Harris to his wife, 1800.
162.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 4: 75, 1802.
163.
Ibid., 4: 75.
164.
Much earlier that problem had surfaced with Chauvelin , who was sent to France as relations began to deteriorate. He wrote home that he did not want “any point of form” to stand in the way of “friendly communications” between France and Great Britain.” P.R.O., FO 27/40, fols. 169–172, minutes of a conference with M. Chauvelin , 29 November 1792.
165.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 4: 73–74. As late as 1801 one British envoy could remark that he had dined with individuals who had “the dress of mountebanks and the manners of assassins.” Cornwallis, Correspondence, 3: 410, Viscount Brome to Major-General Ross, Amiens , 12 December 1801.
166.
See for example, B. L., Add. Mss. 36813, Bute to Grenville , 2 April 1797, fol. 220, private “arrogance of the French mission at Madrid .”
167.
Hampshire Record Office, Wickham Papers, 38M 49/1/1/15, Auckland to Wickham, 12 April 1796.
168.
P.R.O., FO 27/50 Harris , Lille, 11 September 1797.
169.
Jean François Eugène Robinet, ed. Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la Révolution et de l’Empire 1789–1815 (Paris: Libraire historique de la Révolution et de l’Empire, 1899), 2: 791–792.
170.
James Harris , Diaries and Correpondence of James Harris, first Earl of Malmesbury. (London: Richard Bentley, 1844), 3: 555, 13 September 1797.
171.
Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Fürst von Metternich, Mémoires, documents et écrits divers laissés par le Prince Metternich, chancelier de cour et d’état, edited by Richard de Metternich. (Paris: E. Plon et Cie, 1881), 1: 354, 22 December 1797, to his wife.
172.
Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740–1815, 279.
173.
Iiams, Peacemaking from Vergennes to Napoleon, 159.
174.
Black , “From Pillnitz to Valmy,” 141.
175.
Quoted in Norman A. Graebner, Ideas and Diplomacy: Readings in the Intellectual Tradition of American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 36.
176.
Turner, ed., Correspondence of the French Ministers to the United States, 1: 68–69, Ternant to Montmorin, Philadelphia, 13 November 1791.
177.
Hagley, W3-261, Victor Du Pont to the family, 28 June 1795.
178.
Joseph Fauchet , Mémoire sur les État unis d’Amérique, 85–123.
179.
Hagley, W3-275, Victor Du Pont to the family, Charleston , 10 November 1795.
180.
Ibid., W3-261, Victor Du Pont to the family, 28 June 1795.
181.
Ibid., W3-267, Victor Du Pont to the family, 2 August 1795.
182.
Ibid., W3-275, Victor Du Pont to the family, Charleston , 10 November 1795.
183.
Florimond Claude, comte de Mercy-Argenteau , Briefe des Grafen Mercy-Argentau k.k. Bevollmächtigen Minister in den Österreichischen Niederlanden an den K. K. Ausserordentilichen Gesandten zu London Grafen Louis Starhemberg, von 26 December 1791 bis August 1794, ed. A. Graf Thurheim (Innsbruck: Wagnerschen Universitats-Buchhandlung, 1884), 84, Mercy, Brussels, 26 May 1793.
184.
Aulard, ed. Recueil des actes du comité de salut public, 4: 185–186.
185.
Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System, 278.
186.
National Maritime Museum, WDG16/1, William Waldegrave 1796 Proceedings at Tunis, 2.
187.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 688 and 720. On another occasion Napoleon voiced the belief that the old etiquette would collapse by its “old age.” Napoleon, Correspondance de Napoléon I, 3: 73, Napoleon to Directory, 8 prairial an V (27 May 1797).
188.
Marie Caroline , queen of Naples , Correspondance inédite de Marie Caroline, reine de Naples et de Sicile. (Paris: Emile-Paul, 1911), 1: 533, 1798, #290 and 534, 1798.
189.
Allonville, Mémoires, 9: 360.
190.
Lord Granville Leveson Gower (First Earl Granville), Private Correspondence 1781 to 1821, ed. Castalia Countess Granville (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1916), 2: 279, 1807.
191.
Bailleu, ed. Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807, 1: 519, Beurnonville to Hauterive , Berlin , 1 Feb. 1800.
192.
Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Baroness de Staël-Holstein, Ten Years’ Exile or Memoirs of that Interesting Period of the Life of the Baroness de Staël-Holstein (Fontwell, Sussex: Centaur Press Ltd., 1968), 39.
193.
Mowat, The Diplomacy of Napoleon, 96.
194.
Ibid., 228–229.
195.
François Pierre Guizot and Henriette Elizabeth Guizot de Witt, The History of France from the Earliest Times to 1848 (Boston : Dana Estes & Company, 1885), 6: 443; Andrew Roberts, Napoleon (New York: Viking, 2014), 149.
196.
Hüffer, ed. Quellen zur Geschichte des Zeitalters der französischen Revolution, 323, Gallo, Merveldt, Degelmann to Thugut , Udine 1 September 1797; also see Sorel , L’Europe et le Révolution française, 5: 245–248.
197.
Ibid., 458, Cobenzl to Thugut , Udine, 14 October 1797.
198.
Cohen , Theatre of Power, 109.
199.
Hüffer, ed., Quellen zur Geschichte des Zeitalters der französischen Revolution, 445, Cobenzl to Thugut , 10 October 1797.
200.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 91–92.
201.
Michaud, Biographie universelle, 43: 223.
202.
Frédéric Clément-Simon, Le premier Ambassadeur de la République française à Constantinople : le Général Aubert du Bayet (Paris: imp. De la “Renaissance latine,” 1904), 6–10; A. A. E., C.P., États-Unis, vol. 47, part 1, fol. 111. Le Redacteur, no. 443, 13 ventôse an 5.
203.
Lois du 30 fructidor an 3, art 2 and of 3 brumaire, an 4, art 16 in Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 190.
204.
N.A., General Records of the Department of State, RG59, Diplomatic Despatches, France (34), vol. 4, James Monroe to the Secretary of State, Paris, 15 August 1794. See also A. A. E., États-Unis, C. P., vol. 41, part 4, fol. 276–289, commissar of foreign relations to Committee of Public Safety, 22 thermidor, an II.
205.
Ibid., James Monroe to the Secretary of State, Paris, 25 August 1794.
206.
Moniteur, 21: 496, #329, August 1794 See also A. A. E., États-Unis, C.P., vol. 41, part 4, fol. 280, commissar of foreign relations to Committee of Public Safety, 22 thermidor, an II.
207.
Ibid.
208.
A. A. E., C.P., États-Unis vol. 47, part 6, fol. 409, par M. Otto, Consideration sur la conduite du gouvernement des États Unis … 1789–1797.
209.
Moniteur vol. 24: 292–293, 23 April 1795, Meeting of 4 floréal, Merlin du Douai .
210.
John Goldworth Alger, Paris in 1789–1794: Farewell Letters of Victims of the Guillotine (London: George Allen, 1902), 98–99.
211.
Aulard, ed., Recueil des actes du comité de salut public, 1: 343, 19 December 1792.
212.
Edmund Burke , The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, Volume 9, Part 1, May 1796–July 1797, ed. R. B. McDowell (Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 1970), 101–102, Edmund Burke to Earl Fitzwilliam, 30 October 1796, fn. 7.
213.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 91.
214.
NA, General Records of the Department of State, RG59, Diplomatic Despatches, France (34), vol. 5, 17 November 1796.
215.
NA, The Netherlands (M42), vol. 3, W.V. Murray, The Hague, 4 February 1798.
216.
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Frey, L., Frey, M. (2018). The Revolutionary Theater of Power: Precedence and Etiquette. In: The Culture of French Revolutionary Diplomacy. Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71709-8_4

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