Abstract
This chapter assesses the historical evolution and current status of India’s relations with the major spacefaring nations in the context of the changing uses of space technology and foreign policy attitudes highlighted in the previous chapters. What clearly emerges is that these evolving attitudes are influencing the evolution of New Delhi’s space relations, and vice versa. This is evident when considering the maturing relations with the United States or the emerging competition with China that moves in parallel to an emerging partnership with Japan, Israel and Australia in the context of Asian security dilemmas. While the Indian space programme entertains cooperative relations with over 30 countries, the focus of this chapter is on the country’s space relations with the major spacefaring nations, namely, the United States, Russia, China, Japan and Europe, at both pan-European and at individual national level.
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Notes
- 1.
It is interesting to note that India initially asked CNES to build a joint communication satellite. When the proposal did not pan out, Virkram turned to NASA, which provided access to its ATS-6, paving the way for the SITE project in 1975–1976 (Prasad 2015).
- 2.
In 2016, several energy and defence deals worth billions of dollars were closed at the 2016 annual Indo-Russian summit (Busvine and Pinchuk 2016). Closer alliance with influential Asian partners such as China, Turkey and India were vital to the health of the Russian economy at the time and therefore somewhat inevitable given the sanctions of Western economic powers on Russia in connection to the annexation of Crimea in 2014.
- 3.
This section draws on the research conducted for the book “When China Goes to the Moon…” (Aliberti 2015).
- 4.
Interestingly, Hideo Itokawa wrote of this period in his book “Third Road – India, Japan and Entropy”, which was published in 1994.
- 5.
In spite of the resounding success of the Kaguya-1 mission, policy-makers have in fact provided little political backing and financial commitment to the programme. Because of the climate of severe budgetary pressures affecting Japan’s economy since 2007 on the one side, and the termination of U.S. plans on the other, the follow-on Kaguya-2 moon lander scheduled for launch in 2010 and tactically intended to anticipate the 2013 Chinese Chang’e-3 mission, was suspended and has not yet received the final “green light” from the government. The mission is now scheduled for 2018, i.e. even after China’s Chang’e-5 sample return mission.
- 6.
The position was also clarified in a personal interview with Ajej Lele, where he stressed, “As of today, a human mission is not in our space agenda. We are in a very early phase of developing a few critical technologies required for realising a human mission”. Quoted from: (Lele 2014).
- 7.
There are multiple reasons for this reluctance. First, anti-militarism remains a deep-rooted attitude within a number of Japan’s parliamentary factions and within the nation as a whole. Second, considering that the government is confronted with important budgetary constraints that affects the defence budget, “there is no luxury to increase spending for the unfamiliar domain of space” (Suzuki 2013). Furthermore, the MoD has little experience and almost no staff or technical expertise in space technology. This makes it dependent on JAXA for expertise. As argued by Kazuto Suzuki, “Given the secretive nature of the MoD, it would not be acceptable to depend on a civilian agency to develop military sensitive technology. So instead of relying on JAXA the MoD has to date chosen not to invest so much in space” (Ibid). Finally, many analysts have noted the importance of Japan’s alliance with the United States and argued that these ties mean that Japan does not have to become a military space power (and compete in an arms race in space) in order to maintain its security. See Suzuki (2013) and Aliberti (2015).
- 8.
This strategic initiative was launched already during Mr. Abe’s first tenure as prime minister (September 2006–September 2007) and named the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Japan, the United States, India and Australia) as a solution to the maritime disputes involving China. The new strategy is based on “three pillars: (1) reinvigorating the US–Japan alliance, (2) a reintroduction of the United Kingdom and France to Asia’s international security realm, and (3) bolstering international cooperation between key democracies in the Indo-Pacific, such as India and Australia” (Miller 2013).
- 9.
The main task of the Centre is to develop the skills and knowledge of university educators, environmental research scientists and project personnel in the design, development and application of space science and technology for subsequent application in national and regional development and environment management.
- 10.
While also India has in the past been subject to ITAR restrictions, since the early 2000s these measures have been progressively removed. Further in 2016, India and the United States reached an understanding under which India would receive license-free access to a wide range of dual-use technologies (Samson 2017).
- 11.
Quoted from Moltz (2012)
- 12.
As noted by Lele, this specific arrangement “should not be viewed only as a commercial activity but also as one that demonstrates India’s faith in the French administration, where they are depending on a foreign agency for the launch of a strategic system into space” (Lele, Space Collaboration Beteen India and France – Towards a New Era, 2015).
- 13.
This umbrella agreement enables both ISRO and ESA to carry out programmes of common interest in space science and applications including communication, remote sensing for monitoring the environment and corresponding data processing, meteorology and navigation and life and material sciences under microgravity conditions.
- 14.
It is interesting to note that in cooperating with India, EUMETSAT has entertained relations with a space agency, rather than with a meteorological administration, as in the case of other cooperative ventures with third countries.
- 15.
Meteosat-5 provided the service at 63°E from 1 July 1998 to 16 April 2007, and Meteosat-7 provided the service at 57°E from 5 December 2006 to 31 March 2017.
- 16.
Article 1 of the EUMETSAT–ISRO Agreement on “Cooperation in Exchange, Redistribution and Utilisation of Data and Products from Meteorological and Ocean Satellites in Support of Weather Analysis and Forecasting and Other Related Areas”
- 17.
ISRO’s Scatsat-1 mission was launched on 26 September 2016 by a PSLV-C35 rocket. The planned mission duration is of 5 years.
- 18.
Pursuant this exchange of letters, Article 3.3. of the Agreement on Cooperation in Exchange, Redistribution and Utilisation of Data and Products from Meteorological and Ocean Satellites in Support of Weather Analysis and Forecasting and Other Related Areas signed in 2014 was amended to include Scatsat-1. The article now reads as follows: “‘ISRO Data’ means all data generated by the meteorological payloads of ISRO’s Geostationary satellites (INSAT 3A, Kalpana and INSAT 3D series) and by the meteorological and ocean payloads of ISRO’s Low Earth Orbiting satellites (Oceansat series, SCATSat −1, Megha-Tropiques and SARAL)”.
- 19.
In the joint declaration that was released in conjunction with the launch of their strategic partnership on 8 November 2004, the leaders of the two unions emphasised their space cooperation on Galileo: “we welcome the progress in the on-going discussion on the EU-India Draft Cooperation Agreement on the Galileo satellite navigation project. It will ensure India’s equitable participation in Galileo space, ground and user segments and will guarantee the availability of highest quality signals over the Indian territory. Considering that India has well proven capabilities in space, satellite and navigation related activities, the agreement will provide an important positive impulse for Indian and European industrial co-operation in many high-tech areas. [...] The EU and India both have very mature space programmes and a long history of working together through their respective space agencies ESA and ISRO in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space. The EU expresses its interest in the Indian unmanned lunar exploration mission Chandrayaan-1. We support and encourage the cooperation between ESA and ISRO”.
- 20.
At that time discussions were also underway with Argentina, Brazil, Morocco, Mexico, Norway, Chile, South Korea, Malaysia, Canada and Australia.
- 21.
ROSA is a GPS occultation receiver intended to study the main physical parameter of the Earth’s atmosphere. For more information on the ROSA-Oceansat-2 cooperation, see De Cosmo (2006).
- 22.
The Enrica Lexie case refers to a still ongoing international dispute about two Indian fishermen killed off the coast of Kerala by two Italian marines onboard the Italian tanker Enrica Lexie. The case has caused serious diplomatic tensions between the two countries and has sparked a controversy over the legal jurisdiction and functional immunity between the two governments.
- 23.
The training activity was quite useful to ISRO and an average of eighty man-months of training was provided for a period of roughly 8 years from 1973 to 1981. The subjects of training included materials and structures, specifically composites of carbon fibre reinforced plastics. The training on the design of rocket propulsion test facilities resulted in commissioning of the High-Altitude Test Facility at SHAR in 1980. The training in the areas of mission planning and mission operations resulted in ISRO experts gaining additional knowledge in the area of orbit determination and satellite operations (Prasad 2015).
- 24.
For a more detailed overview of Biros and EnMAP missions, see DLR 2016.
- 25.
The creation of this group goes back to the decision made by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh during the Second Indo-German governmental consultations in April 2013 in Berlin, where both governments agreed to expand trade and cooperation in high technology (Ministry of External Affairs 2013).
- 26.
However, as further detailed by Al-Ekabi (2016), “the competitive edge that European satellite integrators have over their U.S. counterparts might be challenged due to the gradual increase in cooperation between India and the United States as a result of the loosening of U.S. government regulations on collaboration with that country. In 2008, the U.S. government eased sanctions on industrial cooperation by U.S. companies with India in the field of space and missile technology, sanctions that were originally put into force after Indian underground nuclear tests.240 ITAR regulations formed a second barrier that made it impossible for U.S. manufacturers to export U.S. satellite components and fully manufactured satellites to India, which impeded them from entering into industrial cooperation with ISRO/Antrix similar to the Airbus cooperation. Because of the 2014 changes in the ITAR regulations this barrier has been lifted. The access advantage European satellite integrators had is therefore reduced but no U.S. satellite integrator has so far established any form of cooperation agreement with ISRO or Antrix”.
- 27.
Remarkably, following Modi’s visit to France in April 2015, ADS announced that “links with Indian industry in this space sector will grow in the coming years through the cooperation on design and manufacturing of larger telecommunications satellites in India” (de Selding 2015).
- 28.
As detailed by Blamont (2017), “to acquire the Viking engine technology, ISRO engineers worked in all areas of development activities of the Ariane programme. They participated in design reviews, progress reviews and even had interaction with European industries. They received all detailed design drawings and documents, and participated in inspection and quality assurance of systems, subsystems and components. They were also part of assembly and integration, checkout and testing operations in SEP facilities. They had discussions with SEP specialists and received clarifications to understand the technology fully. Some 40 engineers, working under a five-year contract, participated in the technology acquisition program at Vernon and Brétigny in France”. The ISRO Chairman created in 1980 a Liquid Propulsion Project (LPP) which organised three teams under the leadership of three SEP trained experts—the first team developed the system, the second was tasked to realise all hardware in India in association with Indian industries, and the third team was to establish all development facilities at Mahendragiri. Indian industries and academic institutions were associated in the development effort”.
- 29.
Companies like Thomson, SAFT, Matra, Deutsch and SAGEM, among others, would later sign important commercial contracts with ISRO.
- 30.
Together with the framework agreement on space cooperation, India also signed an MoU between the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) of ISRO and Ecole Polytechnique (EP) at Paris for furthering collaboration in academic and research activities involving students and professionals and an agreement between ISRO/Antrix and Astrium enabling Astrium to offer attractive solutions in international markets for in-orbit delivery of its Earth observation satellites using the PSLV launch services from Antrix/ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation 2008).
- 31.
The Declaration of New Delhi, which came into effect on 16 May 2016, more specifically calls for the maturation of “space-based operational tools combining in-situ measurements and increased computing resources. To this end, space agencies will need to develop new technologies and encourage their research community to contribute actively with new models. Success will depend above all on cooperation to cross-calibrate instruments and validate their measurements. Certain satellites like GOSAT for JAXA and OCO-2 for NASA are already paving the way, and in the near future TANSAT for China, the Copernicus programme’s Sentinel series and of course MERLIN for CNES and DLR, and MicroCarb for CNES” (Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales 2016).
- 32.
The Google Lunar X Prize is a competition that awards a cumulative $30 million in a competition to land an unmanned spacecraft on the moon by the end of 2017 and record a high definition video of at least half a kilometre of travel on the celestial body before returning back to Earth.
- 33.
CASPEX (Colour Cmos-Based Microcamera for Space Exploration) are microcameras using patented technology that reduces the size of an optical imaging instrument by a factor of ten. CASPEX is reprogrammable and radiation-tolerant, making it suited to a range of space missions. After their maiden flight for the Team Indus lunar mission, CASPEX cameras will next equip the NASA’s Mars 2020 Rover Mission (Consulate General of France in Bangalore 2017).
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Aliberti, M. (2018). Cooperation and Competition in India’s Space Relations. In: India in Space: Between Utility and Geopolitics. Studies in Space Policy, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71652-7_6
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