Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Can Extracurricular Activities Reduce Adolescent Race/Ethnic Friendship Segregation?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Social Networks and the Life Course

Part of the book series: Frontiers in Sociology and Social Research ((FSSR,volume 2))

Abstract

High school extracurricular activities (ECAs) can bring diverse adolescents together and promote friendships that reduce outgroup prejudices. This chapter examines two seemingly contradictory processes and explain how, in fact, they can occur in tandem. At the macro level, ECAs can promote homophily (i.e., in-group friendship) by homogenizing the pool of available friends, whereas at the micro level, ECAs can decrease the relative salience of attributes such as race/ethnicity during friend selection. The analysis presented in this chapter uses data on friendships and participation in 30 ECAs from 108 schools in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. It is found that around 60% of the ECAs were more homogenous than the broader school context in which they are embedded. On average, ECAs did not predict preferences for homophily, but did predict the frequency of cross-group friendships. ECAs may thus provide many of the desired benefits of integration despite not producing short-term changes in friendship preferences.

Support provided by NICHD R21-HD071885.

We are grateful for the thoughtful feedback provided by Michal Bojanowski, Ron Burt, Claude Fischer, Scott Feld, and Steven Haas.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    All else being equal, smaller groups will have a higher Coleman value. Thus, the test is biased toward greater homophily within ECAs. This bias is negligible as group size increases.

  2. 2.

    The correlation between baseline homophily measures is −.995; measures of inbreeding are correlated at .65.

  3. 3.

    The odds ratio we use is equivalent to Moody’s α as a measure of gross segregation. Moody’s figure is based on net segregation (β), which was calculated using a statistical model (e.g. ERGM) to control for other friend selection factors. The smaller size of ECAs, relative to schools, precludes us from taking this approach. Moody found that the two measures exhibited similar patterns with β smaller on average than α.

  4. 4.

    Feld (1982) observed such a pattern: the proportion of friends outside one’s department who were similar to oneself was greater for workers in less diverse departments.

References

  • Aboud, F. E., Mendelson, M. J., & Purdy, K. T. (2003). Cross-race peer relations and friendship quality. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 165–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New Jersey: Doubleday Anchor Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benediktsson, M. O. (2012). Bridging and bonding in the academic melting pot: Cultural resources and network diversity. Sociological Forum, 27, 46–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berndt, T. J. (1992). Friendship and friends’ influence in adolescence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 156–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, J., Zagefka, H., Brown, R., Funke, F., Kessler, T., Mummendey, A., Maquil, A., Demoulin, S., & Leyens, J.-P. (2009). Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 843–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bojanowski, M., & Corten, R. (2014). Measuring segregation in social networks. Social Networks, 39, 14–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chappell, B. (2002). Race ethnicity and sport. In A. Laker (Ed.), The sociology of sport and physical education (pp. 92–109). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clotfelter, C. T. (2002). Interracial contact in high school extracurricular activities. The Urban Review, 34, 25–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Currarini, S., Jackson, M. O., & Pin, P. (2010). Identifying the roles of race-based choice and chance in high school friendship network formation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 4857–4861.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, K., Tropp, L. R., Aron, A., Pettigrew, T. F., & Wright, S. C. (2011). Cross-group friendships and intergroup attitudes: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 332–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ettekal, A. V., Simpkins, S. D., Menjivar, C., & Delgado, M. Y. (2015). “No, that’s not me!” … “Just teach me with respect”: A mixed method study of culturally responsive organized activities. (Manuscript in preparation).

    Google Scholar 

  • Feld, S. L. (1981). The focused organization of social ties. American Journal of Sociology, 86, 1015–1035.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feld, S. L. (1982). Social structural determinants of similarity among associates. American Sociological Review, 47, 797–801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feld, S. L., & Grofman, B. (2009). Homophily and the focused organization of ties. In P. Bearman & P. Hedström (Eds.), Oxford handbook of analytical sociology (pp. 521–543). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrell, J. A. (2008). A magnet school and desegregation: A case study of Booker T. Washington high school, 1975–1980. Dissertation, Oklahoma State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, C. S., Jackson, R. M., Ann Stueve, C., Gerson, K., Jones, L. M., & Baldassare, M. (1977). Networks and places: Social relations in the urban setting. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodreau, S. M., Kitts, J. A., & Morris, M. (2009). Birds of a feather, or friend of a friend?: Using exponential random graph models to investigate adolescent social networks. Demography, 46, 103–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Taylor, A. Z., & Ho, A. Y. (2009). Race and ethnicity in peer relations research. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 394–413). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W., & Stevens, N. (1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 355–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M. K., Crosnoe, R., & Elder, G. H. (2011). Insights on adolescence from a life course perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 273–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G. J., Carlton, T. A., Bocarro, J. N., Bunds, K. S., & Edwards, M. B. (2016). The salience of sport in cross-race friendship selection. Journal of Amateur Sports, 2, 73–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalmijn, M., & Flap, H. (2001). Assortative meeting and mating: Unintended consequences of organized settings for partner choices. Social Forces, 79, 1289–1312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knifsend, C. A., & Juvonen, J. H. (2015). Extracurricular activities in multiethnic middle schools: Ideal context for positive intergroup attitudes? (Unpublished manuscript).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kornienko, O., Santos, C. E., & Updegraff, K. E. (2015). Friendship networks and ethnic-racial identity development: Contributions of social network analysis. (Forthcoming chapter).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kossinets, G., & Watts, D. J. (2009). Origins of Homophily in an evolving social network. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 405–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R. W., Hansen, D. M., & Moneta, G. (2006). Differing profiles of developmental experiences across types of organized youth activities. Developmental Psychology, 42, 849–863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lease, A. M., & Blake, J. J. (2005). A comparison of majority-race children with and without a minority-race friend. Social Development, 14, 20–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, K., Gonzalez, M., & Kaufman, J. (2011). Social selection and peer influence in an online social network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 68–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, J., Vandell, D., Simpkins, S., & Zarrett, N. (2009). Adolescent out-of-school activities. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), The handbook of adolescent psychology: Vol. 2. Contextual influences on adolescent development (3rd ed., pp. 228–269). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, M. (1983). An ecology of affiliation. American Sociological Review, 48, 519–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, M. (2004). A Blau space primer: Prolegomenon to an ecology of affiliation. Industrial and Corporate Change, 13, 263–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, J. M., & Smith-Lovin, L. (1986). Sex segregation in voluntary associations. American Sociological Review, 51, 61–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, M., & Smith-Lovin, L. (1987). Homophily in voluntary organizations: Status distance and the composition of face-to-face groups. American Sociological Review, 52, 370–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, J. M., Lynn, S.-L., & Cook James, M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M. E. (2006). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review, 71, 353–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moody, J. (2001). Race, school integration, and friendship segregation in America. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 679–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouw, T., & Entwisle, B. (2006). Residential segregation and interracial friendship in schools. American Journal of Sociology, 112, 394–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivas-Drake, D., Umaña-Taylor, A., Schaefer, D. R., & Medina, M. (2017). Ethnic-racial identity and friendships in early adolescence. Child Development, 88, 710–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roeser, R. W., & Peck, S. C. (2003). Patterns and pathways of educational achievement across adolescence: A holistic-developmental perspective. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 101, 39–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K., Bukowski, W., & Parker, J. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Volume 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 571–645). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1996). Transitions and turning points in developmental psychopathology: As applied to the age span between childhood and mid-adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 603–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, D. R., Kornienko, O., & Fox, A. M. (2011a). Misery does not love company: Network selection mechanisms and depression homophily. American Sociological Review, 76, 764–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, D. R., Simpkins, S. D., Vest, A. E., & Price, C. (2011b). The contribution of extracurricular activities to adolescent friendships: New insights through social network analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1141–1152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, J. W. (1995). Promoting positive intergroup relations in school settings. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.), Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America (pp. 257–289). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, E. (2010). Long-term correlates of high school racial composition: Perpetuation theory reexamined. Teachers College Record, 112, 1654–1678.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, E., Buchmann, C., & Bonneau, K. (2009). Interracial friendships in the transition to college: “Do birds of a feather flock together once they leave the Nest?”. Sociology of Education, 82, 173–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health (add health), waves I & II, 1994–1996; wave III, 2001–2002 [machine-readable data file and documentation]. Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., Seaton, E., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandell, D. L., Larson, R. W., Mahoney, J. L., & Watts, T. W. (2015). Children’s organized activities. In R. M. Lerner (Series Ed.), & M. H. Bornstein, & T. Leventhal (Volume Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science; Vol. 4. Ecological settings and processes (7th ed., pp. 305–344). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, N. D., Larson, R. W., & Sullivan, P. (2007). Bridging intergroup difference in a community youth program. American Behavioral Scientist, 51, 380–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, A. S., & Crain, R. L. (1994). Perpetuation theory and the long-term effects of school desegregation. Review of Educational Research, 64, 531–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A., Eccles, J., Fredricks, J., Simpkins, S., Roeser, R., & Schiefele, U. (2015). Development of achievement motivation and engagement. In R. M. Lerner (Series Ed.), & C. Garcia Coll, & M. Lamb (Volume Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 3. Social and emotional development (7th ed., pp. 657–700). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, A., & Lewis, K. (2010). Beyond and below racial homophily: ERG models of a friendship network documented on Facebook. American Journal of Sociology, 116, 583–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcieszak, M. E., & Mutz, D. C. (2009). Online groups and political discourse: Do online discussion spaces facilitate exposure to political disagreement? Journal of Communication, 59, 40–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

    David R. Schaefer

  2. School of Education, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

    Sandra D. Simpkins

  3. Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

    Andrea Vest Ettekal

Authors
  1. David R. Schaefer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sandra D. Simpkins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrea Vest Ettekal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David R. Schaefer .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

    Duane F. Alwin

  2. Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

    Diane H. Felmlee

  3. Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

    Derek A. Kreager

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Schaefer, D.R., Simpkins, S.D., Ettekal, A.V. (2018). Can Extracurricular Activities Reduce Adolescent Race/Ethnic Friendship Segregation?. In: Alwin, D., Felmlee, D., Kreager, D. (eds) Social Networks and the Life Course. Frontiers in Sociology and Social Research, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71544-5_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71544-5_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-71543-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-71544-5

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation