Abstract
This chapter examines the inadequacy of Shia–Sunni rivalry as shorthand to explain the current upheaval in Middle East. Its depiction as ideological (religious) rather than pragmatic, that is, an Arab–Persian rivalry, is questionable. The theory of “sectarianization” to explain authoritarian regimes’ manipulation of sectarian identities, and the resulting economic stagnation as the heart of social and political instability in the Middle East, is more convincing. However, portraying Christians as “victims” and “minorities” distorts their historic role and contributions to Arab and Islamic society. Caution is needed before engaging in the “duty to protect” through military intervention and the establishment of safe zones, as they are imperfect means to protect vulnerable groups.
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Notes
- 1.
“Chris Matthews interview with King Abdullah II of Jordan,” Hardball with Chris Matthews, MSNBC, December 9, 2004, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6679774/ns/msnbc-hardball_with_chris_matthews/t/king-abdullah-ii-jordan/#.
- 2.
Robin Wright and Peter Baker, “Iraq, Jordan See Threat to Election From Iran: Leaders Warn Against Forming Religious State,” Washington Post, December 9, 2004, p. A01, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43980-2004Dec7.html
- 3.
Keyhan Barzegar, “Iran and the Shiite Crescent: Myths and Realities,” The Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol. XV, No. 1, Fall/Winter 2008. https://www.brown.edu/initiatives/journal-world-affairs/151/iran-and-shiite-crescent-myths-and-realities
- 4.
Barzegar, ibid.
- 5.
Barzegar, ibid.
- 6.
Fadi A. Haddadin, “The ‘Shia Crescent’ and Middle East Geopolitics,” January 31, 2017, Foreign Policy Association, https://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2017/01/31/shia-crescent-middle-east-geopolitics/
- 7.
Nader Hashemi and Danny Postel, “Introduction: The Sectarianization Thesis” in Nader Hashemi and Danny Postel (eds.), Sectarianization: Mapping the New Politics of the Middle East (Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press: 2017), p. 19.
- 8.
Ibid, p. 5.
- 9.
Rami Khouri, The Vulnerability of Arab Christians and Other Minorities Is Citizenship Rights Under T\the Rule of Law.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
Paul S. Rowe, “The Middle Eastern Christian as Agent,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 42, No. 3 (August 2010), pp. 472–474.
- 12.
Bernard Heyberger, “Eastern Christians, Islam and the West: A Connected History,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 42, no. 3 (August 2010), pp. 475–478. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40784825
- 13.
Robson advocates support of recent scholarship that seeks to change the idea that Arab Christians constituted segregated and victimized communities in the 19th and 20th centuries. L.C. Robson, “Recent Perspectives on Christians in the Modern Arab World,” History Compass, 9/4, 2011, pp. 312–325.
- 14.
Andrea Zaki Stephanous, Political Islam, Citizenship, and Minorities: The Future of Arab Christians in the Islamic Middle East (Lanham, MD, University Press of America: 2010), p. 11.
- 15.
Egyptian Ambassador to Vatican: “We don’t share the view Christians are persecuted in Middle East.” Published on Jan 12, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tp3s55s9aSM. Egypt has recalled their ambassador to the Vatican for consultation in light of the Pope’s remarks on the need for the Egyptian government to do more to protect its Christian minority. Egyptian Ambassador to Vatican “We don’t share view Christians are persecuted in Middle East,” ROME REPORTS in English, 4,052 views.
- 16.
Philip Pullella and Mahmoud Mourad, “Pope Francis denounces barbarity during Egypt visit, preaches tolerance,”
Reuters, #WORLD NEWS APRIL 28, 2017. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-egypt-idUSKBN17U0U4
- 17.
Pope Francis arrives in Egypt on historic visit: Catholic pontiff’s two-day visit is aimed at fostering peace between the Muslim and Christian-minority community, April 29, 2017. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/pope-francis-arrives-egypt-historic-day-visit-170428113013811.html
- 18.
Marina Barsoum, “Egypt’s anti-blasphemy law: Defence of religion or tool for persecution?” ahramonline, Sunday 15 May 2016. “On June 12, 2016, the Egyptian government clearly stated its opposition to scrapping a part of Article 98 of the Egyptian Penal Code which significantly penalizes “defamation” of “religions” with a 6-month to 5-year prison sentence. The legal ambiguity of “defamation”, coupled with a track record of using this Article against Copts and liberals, has, according to its detractors, rendered it unfit to stand with a constitution that, at least in theory, guarantees freedom of expression.” http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/151/216896/Egypt/Features/Egypts-antiblasphemy-law-Defence-of-religion-or-to.aspx
- 19.
Declan Walsh, “A Hidden Church in Cairo Pins Its Hopes on Good Will from the Pope’s Visit,” New York Times, April 28, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/28/world/middleeast/cairo-pope-churches.html?emc=eta1. See also, “Egypt: New Church Law Discriminates against Christians,” Human Rights Watch, September 15, 2016. “On August 30, 2016, Egypt’s parliament passed a new law that allows governors to deny church-building permits with no stated way to appeal, requires that churches be built “commensurate with” the number of Christians in the area, and contains security provisions that risk subjecting decisions on whether to allow church construction to the whims of violent mobs. For decades, Egypt’s courts interpreted an 1856 Ottoman decree as giving the president sole power to permit church construction. In 1934, the Interior Ministry set out restrictive rules for church construction. More recently, several Egyptian governments discussed issuing a “unified” law for houses of worship for all religions but never did. https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/09/15/egypt-new-church-law-discriminates-against-christians
- 20.
More than four million Syrians have now fled war and persecution and become refugees in neighboring countries, making the Syrian conflict the UN Refugee Agency’s worst crisis for almost a quarter of a century. UNHR, July 9, 2015. http://www.unrefugees.org/2015/07/total-number-of-syrian-refugees-exceeds-four-million-for-first-time/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw--DLBRCNARIsAFIwR24Iy8MGymjGN_P69SmfUgJ00OZLH8XEqmAuEt2x1N9gWc_HDWeD55IaAidKEALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds
- 21.
Rep. Darin LaHood, H.Res.252—Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives on the challenges posed to long-term stability in Lebanon by the conflict in Syria and supporting the establishment of safe zones in Syria. https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-resolution/252
- 22.
Julia Edwards Ainsley and Matt Spetalnick, “Trump says he will order ‘safe zones’ for Syria,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-syria-safezones-idUSKBN1592O8
- 23.
Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, “UN Refugee Chief Doubtful About Trump Plan for ‘Safe Zones’ in Syria,” February 04, 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/un-refugee-chief-grandi-doubtful-trump-safe-zone-plan-syrian-refugees/28278661.html
- 24.
Pope Francis, Letter to the Christians in the Middle East, December 21, 2014. https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/letters/2014/documents/papa-francesco_20141221_lettera-cristiani-medio-oriente.html
- 25.
Alex J. Bellamy, Responsibility to Protect: The Global Effort to End Mass Atrocities (Cambridge, UK, Polity Press: 2009), pp. 3–4.
- 26.
“War in Iraq: Not a Humanitarian Intervention,” Human Rights Watch, January 25, 2004 7:00PM EST https://www.hrw.org/news/2004/01/25/war-iraq-not-humanitarian-intervention
- 27.
Alex J. Bellamy, op. cit. p. 53.
- 28.
“Q & A: Safe Zones and the Armed Conflict in Syria,” Human Rights Watch, March 16, 2017 https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/03/16/q-safe-zones-and-armed-conflict-syria#_Have_there_been
- 29.
Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, “UN Refugee Chief Doubtful About Trump Plan for ‘Safe Zones’ in Syria,” February 04, 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/un-refugee-chief-grandi-doubtful-trump-safe-zone-plan-syrian-refugees/28278661.html
- 30.
Nader Hashemi and Danny Postel (eds.), op. cit. p. 21.
- 31.
Letter of Greeting to participants in the Villanova Conference on Christians in the Middle East, December 6, 2016.
- 32.
Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798–1939 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1983), p. 95.
- 33.
Heyberger, op. cit.
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Ellis, K.C. (2018). Epilogue. In: Ellis, K. (eds) Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries. Minorities in West Asia and North Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71204-8_13
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