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The Best of Neighbors: The Alliance Against Fascism, 1939–1944

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Becoming a Good Neighbor among Dictators

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Abstract

This chapter argues that World War II formed a turning point in U.S. relations with Central America. While U.S. diplomats’ attitude toward the dictatorships of Central America had been ambiguous before the war, the two sides developed a close working relationship after 1939. This chapter describes the nature of cooperation between the U.S. and Central American dictatorships during the war, but also shows that U.S. Foreign Service officers developed a conceptual framework for the new relationship that included the dangers of fifth column activities and the stability offered by local dictatorships. Such ideas would play an important role in U.S.–Central American relations during the Cold War.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Alpers, Dictators, 220–249.

  2. 2.

    Hubert Knickerbocker, Manuscript of Article, February 23, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 800.

  3. 3.

    Wood, The Making, 334–361; Ibid., The Dismantling, ix–xiv.

  4. 4.

    Gilderhus, Second Century, 91–96.

  5. 5.

    Schoultz, Beneath the United States, 309–315.

  6. 6.

    An overview of State Department wartime programs can be found in: Findling, Close Neighbors, Chap. 5. For military programs, see: John Child, Unequal Alliance: The Inter-American Military System, 1938–1979 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), 27–62. For an overview of cultural programs, see: Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 35–61 and Justin Hart, Empire of Ideas: The Origins of Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of U.S. Foreign Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 15–40. For local economic developments and the role of U.S. economic warfare, see: Bulmer-Thomas, Political Economy, 87–100.

  7. 7.

    Friedman, Nazis and Good Neighbors, 230.

  8. 8.

    Quoted in Schoultz, Beneath the United States, 314.

  9. 9.

    Bonsal to Welles, March 14, 1941, Lot Files, entry 211, box 4, folder marked March to April, 1941.

  10. 10.

    Frazer, Memorandum on Call upon President Martinez, November 26, 1941, PRES, CF, box 4, Vol. 3, class 800; Salter to Department, October 3, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 2, class 800; Erwin to Department, July 8, 1941, PRHO, box 71, volume XII, class 845; Des Portes to Department, July 9, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, June 21, 1940, PRGU, CF, box 3, class 711; Hartwell Johnson (U.S. Secretary of Legation to Guatemala), Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, August 14, 1941, PRGU, CF, box 4, class 800.1.

  11. 11.

    Cabot, Memorandum on Central America, General, January 9, 1942, Lot Files, entry 211, box 6, folder marked January to February, 1942.

  12. 12.

    For brevity’s sake, only the files of the legation in Honduras will be quoted here: Erwin to Department, November 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, December 15, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, December 15, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1: Neutrality. Duty of Neutrals; Welles to Erwin, Instruction 221, December 22, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Department of State to Erwin, April 14, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 800; Erwin to Department, April 18, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 800; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, June 27, 1939, PRHO, box 49, class 824; Erwin to Department, November 7, 1939, PRHO, box 49, class 824; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, July 29, 1939, PRHO, box 49, class 824; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, May, 1940, PRHO, box 57, class 711.1; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, June 3, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 1, class 711; Erwin to Department, June 4, 1940; PRHO, CF, box 1, class 711; Department of State to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, January 16, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, February 3, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, July 1, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, July 14, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, December 8, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, December 12, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Hull to Erwin, Paraphrase of Department December 31, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Erwin to Department, December 31, 1941, PRHO, box 67, class 711; Paraphrase of telegram 90 from the Department dated December 13, 1941, PRHO, CF, volume 2, class 820; Erwin to Department, December 18, 1941, PRHO, CF, volume 2, class 820.

  13. 13.

    Also consult Chap. 2, section “The War and Postwar Foreign Service, 1943–1952”.

  14. 14.

    Cabot to Drew, September 29, 1938, PRGU, box 20, class 123.

  15. 15.

    Cabot to Department, July 19, 1940, PRGU, box 26, class 121.

  16. 16.

    Frazer to Department, February 27, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to G. Howland Shaw (Assistant Secretary of State), May 19, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to Department, August 16, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Shaw to Frazer, September 2, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Gade to Department, December 4, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Hull to Gade, December 9, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to Department, December 11, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Hull to Frazer, December 17, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to Department, December 23, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Hull to Frazer, December 23, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to Secretary of State, December 27, 1941, PRES, box 38, class 123; Frazer to Department, January 7, 1941, PRES, box 40, class 124.66; Frazer to Department, July 21, 1941, box 40, class 124.66; Frazer to Department, June 30, 1942, PRES, box 56, class 123; Frazer to Department, July 28, 1942, PRES, box 56, class 123; Frazer to Department, July 28, 1942, PRES, box 56, class 123; Gade to Department, December 10, 1942, PRES, box 56, class 123.

  17. 17.

    Albert H. Cousins (U.S. Secretary of Legation to Honduras) to Department, January 3, 1941, PRHO, box 64, class 124.66; Cousins to Department, July 8, 1941, PRHO, box 64, class 124.66; Erwin to Department, January 7, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 123; Erwin to Department, February 25, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 123; Erwin to the Division of Foreign Service Personnel, July 31, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 124; Erwin to Department, May 23, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 124.3; Hull to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, September 12, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 124.3; Erwin to Department, September 18, 1942, PRHO, box 75, class 124.3; Erwin to Department, January 7, 1943, PRHO, box 93, class 124.61.

  18. 18.

    Bonsal to Drew, November 27, 1942, PRGU, CF box 5, class 711.5.

  19. 19.

    For comments on ARA’s workload, see: Daniels, Memorandum, January 6, 1941, Lot Files, ARA, entry 212: Memorandums relating to Administrative Matters, January 6, 1938 to June 29, 1943 (henceforth entry 212), box 1, folder marked 1941; Ray to Daniels, May 19, 1941, Lot Files, entry 212, box 1, folder marked 1941; Daniels, Memorandum, May 24, 1941, Lot Files, entry 212, box 1, folder marked 1941; Chapin, Memorandum, May 9, 1942, Lot Files, entry 212, box 1, folder marked 1942.

  20. 20.

    Unknown author to Shaw, May 28, 1941, PRGU, box 34, class 123; Archer Woodward (U.S. Consul to Guatemala) to Des Portes, January 13, 1943, PRGU, box 59, class 123; Drew to John Erhardt (Chief of the Division of Foreign Service Personnel), February 19, 1943, PRGU, box 59, class 123ers; Drew to Cabot, April 2, 1943, PRGU, box 59, class 123; Drew to John William Baily, Jr. (Assistant Chief of the Division of Foreign Service Personnel), July 6, 1943, PRGU, box 59, class 123.

  21. 21.

    Charles B. Hosmer (U.S. Foreign Service inspector) to Department, December 1, 1941, PRHO, CF, box 3, volume 1, class 124.6; Background Memorandum Explanatory of Principal Services Requested of our Diplomatic Missions and certain Consulates, May 9, 1941, Lot Files, entry 211, box 5, folder marked May, 1941.

  22. 22.

    Dawson to Hanke, February 12, 1943, Lot Files, entry 211, box 14, folder marked Analysis and Liaison: November 1942 to July 1943.

  23. 23.

    Faust to Department, October 28, 1942, PRHO, CF, box 5, class 124.66.

  24. 24.

    Hull to Erwin, December 12, 1941, PRHO, box 68, class 800.1; Josephus Daniels (U.S. Ambassador to Mexico) to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, August 18, 1941, PRES, box 45, class 711; Frazer to Daniels, August 21, 1941, PRES, box 45, class 711; Hull to the Embassies and Legations in Latin America, November 10, 1942, PRHO, class 711.

  25. 25.

    Erwin to Department, January 8, 1943, PRHO, CF, box 11, class 800; Pate, Memorandum for the American Minister, January 23, 1943, PRHO, CF, box 12, class 800.1; Erwin to Department, December 23, 1943, PRHO, CF, box 11, class 800.

  26. 26.

    Des Portes to Duggan, November 27, 1942, PRGU, CF, box 5, class 800.

  27. 27.

    Cabot to Winters and Bonsal, October 6, 1941, Lot Files, ARA, entry 209: Memorandums Relating to Individual Countries, March 3, 1918 to December 31, 1947 (henceforth entry 209) Office of American Republic Affairs: Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked El Salvador, 1940–1947.

  28. 28.

    The fact that Trujillo had a long relationship with the U.S. navy, dating back to his Marine training during U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic, may account for these remarkable differences. See: Roorda, Dictator Next Door, Chap. 6.

  29. 29.

    June to Navy Intelligence Division, January 30, 1942, PRGU, box 47, class 121.

  30. 30.

    June to Navy Intelligence Division, April 14, 1942, PRGU, box 47, class 121.

  31. 31.

    June to Navy Intelligence Division, March 19, 1942, PRGU, box 57, class 800. June notes that this analysis applies particularly well to Guatemala and Nicaragua.

  32. 32.

    Drew to James B. Stewart (U.S. Minister to Nicaragua), October 17, 1942, PRGU, CF, box 5, class 800; Long to Bonsal, December 2, 1943, PRGU, box 69, class 121; Bonsal to Long, December 14, 1943, PRGU, box 69, class 121.

  33. 33.

    Erwin to Philip Bonsal (Chief, Division of Latin-American Affairs), December 24, 1942, PRHO, box 75, volume II, class 123; Faust to Department, June 9, 1943, PRHO, CF, box 15, class 891; Erwin to Department, July 11, 1941, PRHO, CF, box 3, volume 2, class 820.

  34. 34.

    June to Navy Intelligence Division, January 19, 1943, PRGU, box 69, class 121; June to Long, February 6, 1942, PRGU, box 60, class 820.02; June to Navy Intelligence Division, January 11, 1943, PRGU, box 69, class 121.

  35. 35.

    Francis MacDonnell, Insidious Foes. The Axis Fifth Column and the American Home Front (Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 1995).

  36. 36.

    Pommerin, Das Dritte Reich, 27–44; idem, “Das nationalsozialistische Deutschland”, 398–406.

  37. 37.

    Friedman, Nazis and Good Neighbors, 57.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., 12.

  39. 39.

    Messerschmith to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, December 12, 1939, Honduras, CF, box 1, volume 1993/I, class 121.

  40. 40.

    Messerschmith to Frederick F. Salter (U.S. Chargé d’Affaires a.i. to Honduras), October 23, 1941, Honduras, CF, box 1, volume 1993/I, class 124.66.

  41. 41.

    See Chap. 7.

  42. 42.

    Cabot, Memorandum, October 17, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942.

  43. 43.

    Frazer to Department, July 2, 1941, PRES, CF, box 5, class 891.

  44. 44.

    Erwin to Department, April 6, 1942, PRHO, CF, box 8, volume 2, class 820.02.

  45. 45.

    Memorandum on Propaganda about Relations between this Government and the other American Republics, September 17, 1942, Lot Files, ARA, entry 214: Miscellaneous Memorandums, January 4, 1938 to September 12, 1947 (henceforth entry 214), box 66, folder marked Chapin and Toop, 1941 to December 1942.

  46. 46.

    Cabot to Department, July 23, 1940, PRGU, CF, box 3, class 820.02.

  47. 47.

    John Moors Cabot (U.S. Secretary of Legation to Costa Rica), Strictly Confidential Memorandum for Mr. Overton G. Ellis, n.d. (September, 1941), PRES, CF, box 42, volume VI, class 500.

  48. 48.

    For the argument that the overall effect of military aid during the war was slight, see: John M. Baines, “U.S Military Assistance to Latin America: An Assessment”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 14:4 (November, 1972), 469–487; Leonard, “Central America: On the Periphery”, in Leonard and Bratzel, Latin America, 50–53. For the argument that U.S. military aid significantly increased the power and prestige of local military establishments, see: John H. Coatsworth, Central America and the United States: The Clients and the Colossus (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994), 45–48. Authors who stress the importance of local military developments but do not assign a (major) role to U.S. programs are: Kenneth J. Grieb, “The Guatemalan Military and the Revolution of 1944”, The Americas 32:4 (April 1976), 524–543; Williams and Walter, Militarization. Brian Loveman, Brian and Thomas M. Davies, Jr. eds., The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997), especially 29–30, offers a long-term analysis which indicates that, to the surprise of U.S. policymakers themselves, the Latin American professional officer corps created by U.S. programs showed increasing interest in politics after the war and became deeply involved in local government. Child, Unequal Alliance, 27–62 probably offers the most detailed discussion of wartime inter-American relations, but does not arrive at an explicit conclusion on how the military programs affected the local balance of power.

  49. 49.

    Bonsal, Memorandum of Conversation with Frederick T. Willis of the Auto Ordnance Company, September 5, 1941, Lot Files, entry 211, box 5, folder marked General Memoranda, August to September, 1941.

  50. 50.

    Child, Unequal Alliance, 48, shows the following figures for lend-lease aid to Central America: El Salvador $0.9 million or less than 0.5 percent of the total amount of aid; Guatemala $3.1 million or 1 percent of the total amount; and Honduras $0.4 million or less than 0.5 percent of the total amount.

  51. 51.

    Cabot to Bonsal, July 16, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Bonsal to Ray, Wilson, and Welles, January 2, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942.

  52. 52.

    Cabot, Memorandum, December 5, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942. Also consult: Duggan, Memorandum of Conversation with the Guatemalan Minister of Foreign Affairs, September 4, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot to Hooker, Meltzer, Reinstein, and White, October 29, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot to Winters, Daniels, Duggan, and Callado, November 15, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot to Toop, Winters, and Daniels, December 8, 1941, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942.

  53. 53.

    Cabot to Wright, Winters, Bonsal, and Hooker, January 27, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Bonsal to Hooker, Wilson, and Duggan, January 30, 1942 Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Tomlinson to Winters and Bonsal, March 24, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Bonsal to Duggan, June 12, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot, Memorandum for the files, June 10, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Bonsal to Welles, June 11, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Bonsal to Cabot and Duggan, June 16, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942.

  54. 54.

    Cabot to Bonsal, August 4, 1943, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 45, folder marked El Salvador, 1940–1947.

  55. 55.

    Cabot mused that lend-lease credit might be employed to deliver road building equipment to Central America, but acknowledged that a whole series of new international treaties and U.S. laws was necessary to make this possible. Cabot to Bonsal, July 12, 1943, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 45, folder marked El Salvador, 1940–1947.

  56. 56.

    Cabot, Memorandum on the Protection of Puerto Barrios and other Central American Ports, May 28, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot to Hawkins, August 11, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942; Cabot to Bonsal, November 10, 1942, Lot Files, Individual Countries, box 46, folder marked Guatemala, 1936–1942. The archives of the U.S. embassy in San Salvador offer a very good overview of the problems involved in the deliveries of lend-lease tanks in 1944: HGA, Memorandum on Political Developments, December 29, 1943, PRES, box 82, class 800; Thurston to Department, April 5, 1944, PRES, box 98, volume XIII, class 800; Thurston to Department, April 11, 1944, PRES, CF, box 10, class 800; Thurston to Department, April 14, 1944, PRES, CF, box 10, class 824; Thurston to Department, June 21, 1944, PRES, CF, box 10, class 824. Around that time, Berle notified Gade that the Department was aware of the fact that Central American oppositionists deplored the fact that the U.S. was delivering arms to the dictators, but countered that such deliveries were negotiated at a time when the fear of a German invasion was very real. Berle to Gade, November 1, 1944, PRES, CF, box 9, class 710.

  57. 57.

    David F. Schmitz notes the same lack of conceptual differentiation between anticommunist dictators and “the free world” during the Cold War. See Schmitz, ‘Thank God’, 7.

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  1. Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Jorrit van den Berk

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van den Berk, J. (2018). The Best of Neighbors: The Alliance Against Fascism, 1939–1944. In: Becoming a Good Neighbor among Dictators. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69986-8_6

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