Abstract
In this chapter, we review major classification schemes proposed for oaks by John Claudius Loudon , Anders Sandøe Ørsted , William Trelease , Otto Karl Anton Schwarz , Aimée Antoinette Camus , Yuri Leonárdovich Menitsky , and Kevin C. Nixon . Classifications of oaks (Fig. 2.1) have thus far been based entirely on morphological characters. They differed profoundly from each other because each taxonomist gave a different weight to distinguishing characters; often characters that are homoplastic in oaks. With the advent of molecular phylogenetics our view has considerably changed. One of the most profound changes has been the realisation that the traditional split between the East Asian subtropical to tropical subgenus Cyclobalanopsis and the subgenus Quercus that includes all other oaks is artificial. The traditional concept has been replaced by that of two major clades, each comprising three infrageneric groups: a Palearctic-Indomalayan clade including Group Ilex (Ilex oaks), Group Cerris (Cerris oaks) and Group Cyclobalanopsis (cycle-cup oaks), and a predominantly Nearctic clade including Group Protobalanus (intermediate or golden cup oaks), Group Lobatae (red oaks) and Group Quercus (white oaks, with most species in America and some 30 species in Eurasia ). In addition, recent phylogenetic studies identified two distinct clades within a wider group of white oaks: the Virentes oaks of North America and a clade with two disjunct endemic species in western Eurasia and western North America, Quercus pontica and Q. sadleriana. The main morphological feature characterising these phylogenetic lineages is pollen morphology, a character overlooked in traditional classifications. This realisation, along with the now available (molecular-)phylogenetic framework, opens new avenues for biogeographic, ecological and evolutionary studies and a re-appraisal of the fossil record . We provide an overview about recent advances in these fields and outline how the results of these studies contribute to the establishment of a unifying systematic scheme of oaks. Ultimately, we propose an updated classification of Quercus recognising two subgenera with eight sections. This classification considers morphological traits , molecular-phylogenetic relationships, and the evolutionary history of one of the most important temperate woody plant genera.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Akkemik Ü, Yaman B (2012) Wood anatomy of Eastern Mediterranean species. Verlag Kessel, Remagen
Andreánszky G (1959) Die Flora der Sarmatischen Stufe in Ungarn. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
Axelrod DI (1983) Biogeography of oaks in the Arcto-Tertiary Province. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 70:629–657
Bentham G, Hooker JD (1880) Genera plantarum, vol 3. L. Reeve & Co., Williams & Norgate, London
Borgardt SJ, Nixon KC (2003) A comparative flower and fruit anatomical study of Quercus acutissima, a biennial-fruiting oak from the Cerris group (Fagaceae). Am J Bot 90:1567–1584
Borgardt SJ, Pigg KB (1999) Anatomical and developmental study of petrified Quercus (Fagaceae) fruits from the Middle Miocene, Yakima Canyon, Washington, USA. Am J Bot 86:307–325
Bouchal J, Zetter R, Grímsson F, Denk T (2014) Evolutionary trends and ecological differentiation in early Cenozoic Fagaceae of western North America. Am J Bot 101:1–18
Britton NL, Brown A (1913) An illustrated flora of northern United States, Canada and British possessions. Scribner & Sons, New York
Browicz K, Zieliński J (1982) Chorology of trees and shrubs in South-West Asia and adjacent regions. Polish Scientific Publishers, Warsaw, Poznan
Camus A (1936–1938) Les Chênes. Monographie du genre Quercus. Tome I. Genre Quercus, sous-genre Cyclobalanopsis, sous-genre Euquercus (sections Cerris et Mesobalanus). Texte. Paul Lechevalier, Paris
Camus A (1938–1939) Les Chênes. Monographie du genre Quercus. Tome II. Genre Quercus, sous-genre Euquercus (sections Lepidobalanus et Macrobalanus). Texte. Paul Lechevalier, Paris
Camus A (1952–1954) Les Chênes: Monographie du genre Quercus. Tome III. Genre Quercus: sous-genre Euquercus (sections Protobalanus et Erythrobalanus) et genre Lithocarpus. Texte. Paul Lechevalier, Paris
Cavender-Bares J, Gonzalez-Rodriguez A, Eaton DAR, Hipp AL, Beulke A, Manos PS (2015) Phylogeny and biogeography of the American live oaks (Quercus subsection Virentes): a genomic and population genetics approach. Mol Ecol 24:3668–3687
Costa Tenorio M, Morla Juarista C, Sáinz Ollero H (2001) Los bosques Ibéricos. Una interpretación geobotánica. Planeta, Barcelona
Crepet WL (1989) History and implications of the early North American fossil record of Fagaceae. In: Crane PR, Blackmore S (eds) Evolution, systematics, and fossil history of the Hamamelidae Vol 2: ‘Higher’ Hamamelidae. Systematic Association Special Vol 40B. Clarendon, Oxford, pp 45–66
Daghlian CP, Crepet WL (1983) Oak catkins, leaves and fruits from the Oligocene Catahoula Formation and their evolutionary significance. Am J Bot 70:639–649
de Candolle A (1862a) Étude sur l’espèce á l’occasion d’une révision de la famille des Cupulifères. Arch Sci Phys Nat II 15:211–237, 326–365
de Candolle A (1862b) Note sur un charactère observé dans les fruits des chênes. Ann sci nat ser 4(18):49–58
Deng M (2007) Anatomy, taxonomy, distribution and phylogeny of Quercus Subg. Cyclobalanopsis (Oersted) Schneid. (Fagaceae). Ph.D. thesis, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
Deng M, Zhou Z-K, Chen Y-Q, Sun W-B (2008) Systematic significance of the development and anatomy of flowers and fruit of Quercus schottkyana (subgenus Cyclobalanopsis: Fagaceae). Int J Plant Sci 169:1261–1277
Deng M, Hipp A, Song Y-G, Li Q-S, Coombes A, Cotton A (2015) Leaf epidermal features of Quercus subgenus Cyclobalanopsis (Fagaceae) and their systematic significance. Bot J Linn Soc 176:224–259
Deng M, Jiang X-L, Song Y-G, Coombes A, Yang X-R, Xiong Y-S, Li Q-S (2017) Leaf epidermal features of Quercus Group Ilex (Fagaceae) and their application to species identification. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 237:10–36
Denk T, Grimm GW (2009) Significance of pollen characteristics for infrageneric classification and phylogeny in Quercus (Fagaceae). Int J Plant Sci 170:926–940
Denk T, Grimm GW (2010) The oaks of western Eurasia: traditional classifications and evidence from two nuclear markers. Taxon 59:351–366
Denk T, Meller B (2001) Systematic significance of the cupule/nut complex in living and fossil Fagus. Int J Plant Sci 162:869–897
Denk T, Tekleva MV (2014) Pollen morphology and ultrastructure of Quercus with focus on Group Ilex (= Quercus Subgenus Heterobalanus (Oerst.) Menitsky): implications for oak systematics and evolution. Grana 53:255–282
Denk T, Grímsson F, Zetter R (2012) Fagaceae from the early Oligocene of Central Europe: persisting New World and emerging Old World biogeographic links. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 169:7–20
Denk T, Velitzelos D, Güner HT, Bouchal JM, Grímsson F, Grimm GW (2017) Taxonomy and palaeoecology of two widespread western Eurasian Neogene sclerophyllous oak species: Quercus drymeja Unger and Q. mediterranea Unger. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 241:98–128
Dumortier B-C (1829) Florula Belgica. J. Casterman, Tournai
Engelmann G (1880) The acorns and their germination. Trans Acad Sci St Louis 4:190–192
Fang J, Wang Z, Tang Z (2009) Atlas of woody plants in China. Volumes 1–3 and index. Higher Education Press, Beijing
Farr ER, Zijlstra G (2017) Index Nominum Genericorum (Plantarum). 1996+. http://botany.si.edu/ing/. Last accessed 25 June 2017
Flora of China (2016) eFloras: Flora of China. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2. Last accessed 2 Nov 2016
Flora of North America Editorial Commitee (1997) Flora of North America north of Mexico, vol 3. Oxford University Press, New York
Gagnidze R, Urushadze T, Pietzarka U (2014) Quercus pontica Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie 63. Erg. Lfg. 04/13. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp 1–8
Govaerts R, Frodin DG (1998) World checklist and bibliography of Fagales (Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae and Ticodendraceae). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Grímsson F, Zetter R, Grimm GW, Krarup Pedersen G, Pedersen AK, Denk T (2015) Fagaceae pollen from the early Cenozoic of West Greenland: revisiting Engler’s and Chaney’s Arcto-Tertiary hypotheses. Plant Syst Evol 301:809–832
Grímsson F, Grimm GW, Zetter R, Denk T (2016) Cretaceous and Paleogene Fagaceae from North America and Greenland: evidence for a Late Cretaceous split between Fagus and the remaining Fagaceae. Acta Palaeobot 56:247–305
Hesse M, Halbritter H, Zetter R, Weber M, Buchner R, Frosch-Radivo A, Ulrich S (2009) Pollen terminology—an illustrated handbook. Springer, Wien, New York
Hipp AL, Eaton DAR, Cavender-Bares J, Fitzek E, Nipper R, Manos PS (2014) A framework phylogeny of the American oak clade based on sequenced RAD data. PLoS ONE 9:e93975
Hipp AL, Manos P, McVay JD, Cavender-Bares J, González-Rodriguez A, Romero-Severson J, Hahn M, Brown BH, Budaitis B, Deng M, Grimm G, Fitzek E, Cronn R, Jennings TL, Avishai M, Simeone MC (2015) A phylogeny of the world’s oaks. Botany 2015, Edmonton. Available at http://2015.botanyconference.org/engine/search/index.php?func=detail&aid=1305
Hipp AL, Manos PS, González-Rodríguez A, Hahn M, Kaproth M, McVay JD, Valencia Avalos S, Cavender-Bares J (2017) Sympatric parallel diversification of major oak clades in the Americas and the origins of Mexican species diversity. New Phytol. doi:10.1111/nph.14773
Hofmann C-C (2010) Microstructure of Fagaceae pollen from Austria (Paleocene/Eocene boundary) and Hainan Island (?middle Eocene). 8th European Palaeobotany-Palynology Conference. Hungarian Natural History Museum, Budapest, p 119
Huang C, Zhang Y, Bartholomew B (1999) Fagaceae. In: Wu Z-Y, Raven PH (eds) Flora of China 4. Cycadaceae through Fagaceae. Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing, St. Louis, pp 314–400
Hubert F, Grimm GW, Jousselin E, Berry V, Franc A, Kremer A (2014) Multiple nuclear genes stabilize the phylogenetic backbone of the genus Quercus. Syst Biodivers 12:405–423
Huzioka K, Takahashi E (1973) The Miocene flora of Shimonoseki, Southwest Honshu, Japan. Bull Nat Sci Mus 16:115–148
Jähnichen H (1966) Morphologisch-anatomische Studien über strukturbietende, ganzrandige Eichenblätter des Subgenus Euquercus—Quercus lusatica n. sp.—im Tertiär Mitteleuropas. Monatsber Dtsch Akad Wiss Berlin 8:477–512
Jensen RJ (1997) Quercus Sect. Lobatae G. Don in J. C. Loudon, Hort. Brit. 385. 1830. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed) Flora of North America North of Mexico Vol 3. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, pp 447–468
Jia H, Jin P, Wu J, Wang Z, Sun B (2015) Quercus (subg. Cyclobalanopsis) leaf and cupule species in the late Miocene of eastern China and their paleoclimatic significance. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 219:132–146
Kmenta M (2011) Die Mikroflora der untermiozänen Fundstelle Altmittweida, Deutschland. M.Sc. thesis, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. http://othes.univie.ac.at/15964/
Kovar-Eder J, Meller B (2003) The plant assemblages from the main seam parting of the western sub-basin of Oberdorf, N Voitsberg, Styria, Austria (Early Miocene). Cour Forschungsinst Senckenberg 241:281–311
Kremer A, Abbott AG, Carlson JE, Manos PS, Plomion C, Sisco P, Staton ME, Ueno S, Vendramin GV (2012) Genomics of Fagaceae. Tree Genet Genomes 8:583–610
Krishtofovich AN, Palibin IV, Shaparenko KK, Yarmolenko AV, Baykovskaya TN, Grubov VI, Iljinskaya IA (1956) Oligotsenovaya flora gory Ashutas v Kazakhstane (Oligocene flora of Ashutas Mount in Kazakhstan). Komarov Bot Inst Acad Sci SSSR Publ 145 Ser 8 Palaeobot 1:1–241 (in Russian)
Kvaček Z, Walther H (1989) Palaeobotanical studies in Fagaceae of the European tertiary. Plant Syst Evol 162:213–229
Kvaček Z, Walther H (2010 [2012]) European Tertiary Fagaceae with chinquapin-like foligae and leaf epidermal characteristics. Feddes Repert 121:248–267
Kvaček Z, Velitzelos D, Velitzelos E (2002) Late Miocene Flora of Vegora, Macedonia, N. Greece. Korali Publications, Athens
le Hardÿ de Beaulieu A, Lamant T (2010) Guide illustré des Chênes. 2 vols. Edilens, Geer
Linné C (1753) Species Plantarum. Vol 2. Laurentii Salvii, Stockholm
Loudon JC (1830) Loudon’s Hortus Brittanicus. A. & R. Spottiswoode, London
Loudon JC (1838) Arboretum et Fruticetum Brittanicum, vol III. Printed for the author by A. Spottiswoode, London
Loudon JC (1839) Part II. The Jussieuean arrangement. In: Loudon JC (ed) Loudon’s Hortus Brittanicus A new edition. A. Spottiswode, London, pp 491–704
Mai DH (1995) Tertiäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Stuttgart, New York
Makino M, Hayashi R, Takahara H (2009) Pollen morphology of the genus Quercus by scanning electron microscope. Sci Rep Kyoto Prefect Univ Life Environ Sci 61:53–81
Manchester SR (1994) Fruits and seeds of the Middle Eocene nut beds flora, Clarno Formation, Oregon. Palaeontogr Am 58:1–205
Manos PS (1993) Foliar trichome variation in Quercus section Protobalanus (Fagaceae). SIDA Contr Bot 15:391–403
Manos PS (1997) Quercus Sect. Protobalanus (Trelease) A.Camus. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed) Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol 3. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, p 468ff
Manos PS (2016) Systematics and biogeography of the American oaks. Int Oak J 27:23–36
Manos PS, Doyle JJ, Nixon KC (1999) Phylogeny, biogeography, and processes of molecular differentiation in Quercus subgenus Quercus (Fagaceae). Mol Phyl Evol 12:333–349
Manos PS, Zhou ZK, Cannon CH (2001) Systematics of Fagaceae: Phylogenetic tests of reproductive trait evolution. Int J Plant Sci 162:1361–1379
Manos PS, Cannon CH, Oh S-H (2008) Phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic status of the paleoendemic Fagaceae of Western North America: recognition of a new genus, Notholithocarpus. Madroño 55:181–190
McIver EE, Basinger JF (1999) Early Tertiary floral evolution in the Canadian High Arctic. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 86:523–545
McVay JD, Hipp AL, Manos PS (2017) A genetic legacy of introgression confounds phylogeny and biogeography in oaks. Proc R Soc B 284:20170300
Menitsky YL (1984) Duby Azii. Nauka, Leningrad [St. Petersburg]
Menitsky YL (2005) Oaks of Asia [translated from the Russian original of 1984]. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH
Muller CH (1961) The live oaks of the series Virentes. Am Midland Nat 65:17–39
Neophytou C, Dounavi A, Fink S, Aravanopoulos FA (2010) Interfertile oaks in an island environment: I. High nuclear genetic differentiation and high degree of chloroplast DNA sharing between Q. alnifolia and Q. coccifera in Cyprus. A multipopulation study. Eur J For Res 130:543–555
Neophytou C, Aravanopoulos FA, Fink S, Dounavi A (2011) Interfertile oaks in an island environment: II. Limited hybridization Quercus alnifolia Poech and Q. coccifera L. in a mixed stand. Eur J For Res 130:623–635
Nixon KC (1993) Infrageneric classification of Quercus (Fagaceae) and typification of sectional names. Ann Sci For 50:25s–34s
Nixon KC (1997) Fagaceae. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed) Flora of North America North of Mexico. Oxford University Press, New York, p. 436–537
Nixon KC (2002) The oak biodiversity of California and adjacent regions. In: Standiford RB, McCreary D, Purcell KL (eds) Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California’s Changing Landscape. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-184. Pacific Southwest Research Station, San Diego
Nixon KC, Muller CH (1997) Quercus Sect. Quercus Linneus. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed) Flora of North America North of Mexico Vol 3. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis
Oh S-H, Manos PS (2008) Molecular phylogenetics and cupule evolution in Fagaceae as inferred from nuclear CRABS CLAW sequences. Taxon 57:434–451
Ohwi J (1965) Flora of Japan (English ed., edited by F. G. Meyer and E. H. Walker). Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Ørsted AS (1866–1867) Bidrag til egeslægtens systematik. Vidensk Medd naturhist Foren Kjöbenhavn 28:11–88
Ørsted AS (1871) Bidrag til Kundskab om Egefamilien. Kongl Danske Vidensk Selsk Biol Skr 5 naturvidensk math Afd 6:331–538
Pavlyutkin BI (2015) The genus Quercus (Fagaceae) in the early Oligocene flora of Kraskino, Primorskii Region. Paleontol J 49:668–676
Pavlyutkin BI, Chekryzhov IU, Petrenko TI (2014) Geology and floras of lower Oligocene in the Primorye. Dalnauka, Vladivostok
Pearse IS, Hipp AL (2009) Phylogenetic and trait similarity to a native species predict herbivory on non-native oaks. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:18097–18102
Pham KK, Hipp AL, Manos PS, Cronn RC (2017) A time and a place for everything: phylogenetic history and geography as joint predictors of oak plastome phylogeny. Genome. doi:10.1139/gen-2016-0191
Rowley JR (1996) Exine origin, development and structure in pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. In: Jansonius J, McGregor DC (eds) Palynology, Principles and Applications. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, pp 443–462
Rowley JR, Claugher D (1991) Receptor-independent sporopollenin. Bot Acta 104:316–323
Rowley JR, Gabarayeva NI (2004) Microspore development in Quercus robur (Fagaceae). Rev Palaeobot Palynol 132:115–132
Rowley JR, Skvarla JJ, Ferguson IK, El-Gazhaly G (1979) Pollen wall fibrils lacking primary receptors for sporopollenin. In: Bailey GW (ed) In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting Electron Microscopy Society of America, San Antonio, TX, August 13–17, 1979. Claitor, Baton Rouge, pp 340–341
Schneider CK (1906) Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, vol 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena
Schwarz O (1934) In: Krause, K.: Beiträge zur Flora Kleinasiens, IV. Feddes Repert 33: 321–328
Schwarz O (1936) Entwurf zu einem natürlichen System der Cupuliferen und der Gattung Quercus L. Notizbl Bot Gart Mus Berlin-Dahlem Bd. 13 Nr. 116: 1–22
Schwarz O (1937) Monographie der Eichen Europas und des Mittelmeergebietes. Repertorium specierum nov. regni vegetabilis, Sonderbeihefte D. Selbstverlag Friedrich Fedde, Dahlem-Berlin
Simeone MC, Grimm GW, Papini A, Vessella F, Cardoni S, Tordoni E, Piredda R, Franc A, Denk T (2016) Plastome data reveal multiple geographic origins of Quercus Group Ilex. PeerJ 4:e1897
Solomon AM (1983a) Pollen morphology and plant taxonomy of red oaks in eastern North America. Am J Bot 70:495–507
Solomon AM (1983b) Pollen morphology and plant taxonomy of white oaks in eastern North America. Am J Bot 70:481–492
Song SY, Krajewska K, Wang YF (2000) The first occurrence of the Quercus section Cerris Spach fruits in the Miocene of China. Acta Palaeobot 40:153–163
Spach E (1842) Histoire naturelle des végétaux. Phanerogames, vol 11. Schneider & Langrand, Paris
Spicer RA, Herman AB, Liao W, Spicer TEV, Kodrul TM, Yang J, Jin J (2014) Cool tropics in the Middle Eocene: evidence from the Changchang Flora, Hainan Island, China. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 412:1–16
Sprague TA (1929) International Botanical Congress Cambridge (England), 1930. Nomenclature proposals by British botanists. Wyman & Sons, London
Standley PC (1922) Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr US Natl Herb 23. Government Printing Office, Washington
Tanai T, Uemura K (1994) Lobed oak leaves from the Tertiary of East Asia with reference to the oak phytogeography of the northern hemisphere. Trans Proc Palaeontol Soc Japan 173:343–365
Trelease W (1916) The oaks of America. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2:626–629
Trelease W (1924) The American Oaks. Mem Natl Acad Sci 20. Washington Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
Tschan G, Denk T (2012) Trichome types, foliar indumentum and epicuticular wax in the Mediterranean gall oaks, Quercus subsection Galliferae (Fagaceae): implications for taxonomy, ecology and evolution. Bot J Linn Soc 139:611–644
Walther H, Zastawniak E (1991) Fagaceae from Sosnica and Malczyce (near Wroc3łav, Poland). A revision of original materials by Goeppert 1852 and 1855 and a study of new collections. Acta Palaeobot 31:153–199
Writing Group of Cenozoic Plants of China (WGCPC) (1978) Cenozoic plants from China. Fossil Plants of China 3. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Xiang X-G, Wang W, Li R-Q, Lin L, Liu Y, Zhou Z-K, Li Z-Y, Chen Z-D (2014) Large-scale phylogenetic analyses reveal fagalean diversification promoted by the interplay of diaspores and environments in the Paleogene. Perspect Plant Ecol Syst 16:101–110
Xing Y, Onstein RE, Carter RJ, Stadler T, Linder HP (2014) Fossils and large molecular phylogeny show that the evolution of species richness, generic diversity, and turnover rates are disconnected. Evolution 68:2821–2832
Yabe A (2008) Plant megafossil assemblage from the lower Miocene Ito-o Formation, Fukui Prefecture, Central Japan. Mem Fukui Prefect Dinosaur Mus 7:1–24
Acknowledgements
We thank John McNeill for valuable comments. This work was supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR, grant to TD). GWG acknowledges financial support by the AMS Wien.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix 2.1
Appendix 2.1
At https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5547622.v1, we provide an electronic appendix including the following information (which may be subject to future updates): (i) an overview of earlier systematic schemes for oaks (genera, subgenera, sections) in comparison to the new classification; (ii) diagnostic morphological traits reported by earlier taxonomists extracted from the original literature; (iii) a comprehensive list of formerly and currently accepted species of oaks, compiled from the cited oak monographs and complemented by further data sources.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Denk, T., Grimm, G.W., Manos, P.S., Deng, M., Hipp, A.L. (2017). An Updated Infrageneric Classification of the Oaks: Review of Previous Taxonomic Schemes and Synthesis of Evolutionary Patterns. In: Gil-Pelegrín, E., Peguero-Pina, J., Sancho-Knapik, D. (eds) Oaks Physiological Ecology. Exploring the Functional Diversity of Genus Quercus L.. Tree Physiology, vol 7. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-69098-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-69099-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)