Abstract
Brizzi argues that during the May crisis of 1968, the radio—in particular small, peripheral radio stations such as Europe n°1 and Radio-Luxembourg that broadcasted in France but were based abroad—became crucial to the flow of information about internal events in France at a time in which strikes affected the coverage of these events in mainstream television, radio and the press. During the protests, in particular during early May, the government was shown for the first time not to be in control of the dissemination of information. Brizzi focuses attention on the growing conflict in relations between the Élysée and Matignon that became visible in this period. De Gaulle’s misjudgements of the riots and his decision to maintain a low profile during the initial conflict is shown to have left a political vacuum that allowed the new Prime Minister, Georges Pompidou, to assert his authority and enact a shift in the balance of power.
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- 1.
INA , de Gaulle collection, 31 December 1967, 16′10″.
- 2.
Ibidem.
- 3.
For a more detailed study on this see P.G. Cerny, Une politique de grandeur. Aspects idéologiques de la politique extérieure de De Gaulle, Paris, Flammarion, 1986; M. Vaïsse, La Grandeur. Politique étrangère du général de Gaulle, 1958–1969, Paris, Fayard, 1998.
- 4.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., pp. 664–665.
- 5.
J. Fourastié, Les Trente Glorieuses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975, Paris, Fayard, 1979.
- 6.
For a more detailed study of the development of mass society in France and its effects on the collective imaginary, in particular in relation to the younger generation see J-P. Rioux and J-F. Sirinelli (eds), Histoire culturelle de la France, IV, Le temps des masses, Paris, Seuil, 1998. For a comparative study on this see H. Hamon and P. Rotman, Génération, 2 vols., Paris, Seuil, 2008.
- 7.
In 1962, the power relation between presidential Gaullism and parliamentary Gaullism began to be transformed. On this see Charlot, Le phénomène gaulliste, op. cit., pp. 44–52.
- 8.
Roussel, Charles de Gaulle, op. cit., p. 851.
- 9.
F. Flohic, Souvenirs d’outre-Gaulle, Paris, Plon, 1979, p. 172.
- 10.
P. Viansson-Ponté, Quand la France s’ennuie…, Le Monde , 15 March 1968, p. 1.
- 11.
In his memoirs Pompidou (unanimously considered the key figure during the May crisis) remarked on the student revolt: “I admit I did not guess at the time what was going to happen.” G. Pompidou, Pour rétablir une vérité, Paris, Flammarion, 1982, p. 179.
- 12.
J.F. Sirinelli, Mai 68. L’événement Janus, Paris, Fayard, 2008.
- 13.
L. Joffrin, Mai 68. Une histoire du mouvement, Paris, Seuil, 2008, p. 49.
- 14.
At the beginning of the academic year 1968–69, the Faculty of Letters in Nanterre had more than 5000 new registrations. A. Prost, Histoire générale de l’enseignement et de l’éducation en France, IV, Paris, Nouvelle Librairie française, 1982, p. 265.
- 15.
One of the studies that caught the attention of the General was L. Cros, L’explosion scolaire, Paris, Tournon, 1961.
- 16.
This event is also recorded in J. Narbonne, De Gaulle et l’éducation. Une rencontre manquée, Paris, Denoël, 1994.
- 17.
J-R. Tournoux, Le mois de mai du Général, Paris, Plon, 1969, pp. 43–48.
- 18.
This expression is taken from A. Thibaudet, La République des Professeurs, Paris, Hachette, 2006, which has provided a critical historical analysis of the role of teachers, as a social group in comparison with other groups such as lawyers. On this see G. Le Béguec, La République des avocats, Paris, A. Colin, 2003.
- 19.
In the spring of 1967, Georges Pompidou told Alain Peyrefitte, the new Minister of Public Education, that he was against any policy initiative aimed at planning university education: “I am a liberal […]. I will not imprison the young French […]. The State already intervenes in a number of issues, it should not intervene in students’ decision about their education!” See Peyrefitte, C’était de Gaulle, op. cit., p. 1.604.
- 20.
Guichard, De Gaulle face aux crises, op. cit., pp. 360–361.
- 21.
Various witnesses have provided confirmation that in 1968 the General started worrying about the climate of unrest that was spreading across French universities. Jean-Marcel Jeanneney, the Minister of Social Affairs at the time, recalled a particularly telling anecdote about this. During a cabinet meeting in February 1968 Jeanneney mentioned the protests of young people happening in various Western countries and, addressing the Head of State, he said: “If we consider the problems caused by students which several foreign countries—the US , England and Germany —have had to face, France is a peaceful haven. I think it is mostly your doing.” “Yes, it may well be as you say, answered de Gaulle, but don’t delude yourself into thinking that it will last.” J-M. Jeanneney, Une mémoire républicaine, Paris, Seuil, 1997, pp. 233–234.
- 22.
Roussel, Charles de Gaulle, op. cit., p. 854.
- 23.
A. Peyrefitte, Journal Officiel de la République Française, du mercredi 8 mai 1968, p. 1.609.
- 24.
Combat , 9 May 1968, p. 1.
- 25.
J-F. Sirinelli, Les Vingt Décisives. Le passé proche de notre avenir, 1965–1985, Paris, Fayard, 2007, p. 93.
- 26.
M. Martin, “Radio et TV dans la crise de mai 68”, in Espoir, 66, 1989, p. 80.
- 27.
A-J. Tudesq, La radio, les manifestations, le pouvoir, in Comité d’histoire de la télévision, Mai 68 àl’ ORTF, Paris, La Documentation française, 1987, p. 143.
- 28.
C. Paillat, Archives secrètes 1968–1969. Les coulisses d’une année terrible, Paris, Denoël, 1969.
- 29.
D. Cohn-Bendit, Le gauchisme, remède à la maladie sénile du communisme, Paris, Seuil, 1969, p. 75.
- 30.
A. Astoux, Ondes de choc: de mai 1968 à l’Ortf aux radios pirates de 1978, Paris, Plon, 1978, p. 39.
- 31.
C. Fouchet, Mémoires d’hier et de demain. Au service du Général de Gaulle, Paris, Plon, 1971, p. 244.
- 32.
Aa. Vv., Mai 68, Paris, La Documentation française, 1988, p. 46.
- 33.
G. Pompidou, Journal Officiel de la République Française, Séance du mardi 14 mai 1968, p. 1.770.
- 34.
M. Droit, Les feux du crépuscule. Journal 1968-1969-1970, Paris, Plon, 1977, p. 182.
- 35.
Radio was young people’s favourite kind of mass media , because they could listen to it in the privacy of their bedrooms, while television forced them into a collective viewing context (and in a hierarchical society, this meant the head of the family was in charge). A survey of young people between 15 and 20, conducted in November 1966, showed that 81% of those interviewed listened to the radio at least three times a week. It is important to note the percentage of radio’s audience did not vary significantly between those who had a television at home (77%) and those who did not (87%). Of those interviewed who were aged between 19 and 20 years old, 60% had their own personal radio. A-J. Tudesq, “La radio, les manifestations, le pouvoir”, in Comité d’histoire de la télévision, Mai 68 àl’ORTF, Paris, La Documentation française, 1987, p. 139.
- 36.
M. Martin, “Radio et TV dans la crise de mai 68”, op. cit., p. 75.
- 37.
J-P. Filiu, Mai 68 à l’ORTF. Une radio-télévision en résistance, Paris, Nouveau Monde, 2008, p. 46.
- 38.
From 1 October 1968, commercial advertisements were going to be introduced on the ORTF.
- 39.
Television had been defined as the media that had the most decisive influence on the May events; see P. Breton, “Zoom change le jeu, 1966–68”, in J-N. Jeanneney and M. Sauvage (eds), Télévision nouvelle mémoire. Les magazines de grands reportages, Paris, Seuil/INA, 1982.
- 40.
The historical account this paragraph illustrates is based on the detailed study by M-F. Lévy and M. Zancarini-Fournel, “La légende de l’écran noir: l’information à la télévision en mai-juin 1968”, in Réseaux, 90, 1998, pp. 95–118. This study in its turn draws on J-P. Filiu’s pioneering ideas about the May events. See Filiu’s conference paper at the IEP in Paris La crise de l’Ortf en mai-juillet 1968, later published with a few additions on the occasion of the celebrations of the Fortieth anniversary of the French May. J-P. Filiu, Mai 68 à l’ORTF, op. cit.. These studies have been combined with the author’s data taken from the INA archives; in particular, reference has been made to the Director of Programme’s reports and relevant audiovisual material.
- 41.
These three television news programmes were broadcast on the first channel: Télémidi at 1 p.m., Télésoir at 8 p.m. and Télénuit at 11 p.m. The second channel had only one news programme—Tg, 24 heures Actualités—at 7.40 p.m.
- 42.
The news on the first and second ORTF channels dedicated 15 minutes in total to the clashes at Valle Giulia between the 1st and 4th of March 1968. On 5 March a report in Actualité française was dedicated to the Italian student movements.
- 43.
The attempted assassination of Rudi Dutschke and the explosion of student protests in West Berlin, Frankfurt and Munich attracted more attention than the Italian student protests. Between the 11th and the 19th of May, French television dedicated a total of almost an hour to these events. On 19 May 1968 the weekly programme “Panorama”, broadcast on channel one, dedicated a lot of space to the German student movement. INA , L’Allemagne de Rudi le rouge, Panorama, 14′58″.
- 44.
“Panorama” dedicated a long report on the Vietnam negotiations in Paris entitled “Paris, Peace, Capital”. INA , Paris, capitale de la paix, Panorama, 10 May 1968, 44′12″.
- 45.
INA , La double inconstance, 10 May 1968, 1h54′30″.
- 46.
INA , Basketball: France-Tchecoslovaquie, 10 May 1968, 1h42′26″.
- 47.
This document is not in the INA audiovisual archives and is not mentioned in the Director of Programmes report. The broadcast of this documentary is, however, mentioned in Astoux, Ondes de choc:, op. cit., p. 45.
- 48.
C.D., Censure à “Panorama”, Le Monde , 12 May 1968, p. 2.
- 49.
Télémidi on 11 May was watched by 34.1% of viewers (approximately 6 percentage points higher than the average figure for that month, which was 27.9%). M-F. Lévy and M. Zancarini-Fournel, La légende de l’écran noir, op. cit., pp. 101–103.
- 50.
Dans la presse et sur les ondes, Le Monde, 15 May 1968, p. 7.
- 51.
E. Sablier, personal communication, 10 November 2004. According to Sablier between 3 and 12 May television covered “the days of the barricades” for 4 hours and 42 minutes, but this is not confirmed by the data we have gathered. Sablier, La télé du Général, op. cit., pp. 136–137.
- 52.
Lévy and Zancarini-Fournel, La légende de l’écran noir, op. cit., pp. 101–103.
- 53.
André Fanton (Gaullist member of Parliament), David Rousset (social Gaullist) Jean Capelle (ex-Vice-Chancellor of Nanterre), Pierre Juquin (communist member of Parliament ) and Olivier Castro,, Alain Geismar and Jacques Sauvageot (leaders of the student movement) took part in this debate. INA , La révolte des étudiants, Zoom, 14 May 1968, 1h38′33″.
- 54.
Essentially this was a debate between well-known press journalists (which included, among others, Léon Zitrone and Jean Ferniot) and the main leaders of the university movement (Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Alain Geismar, Jacques Sauveageot). INA , Tribune sur l’Université, Télésoir, 16 May 1968, 47′07″.
- 55.
INA , Télésoir, 17 May 1968, 31′52″.
- 56.
This programme recounted how events developed during the last days of the protest through the voices of well-known and not so well-known leaders of the protests juxtaposed with a series of reports relayed from the Sorbonne and the Odéon theatre during the student occupations. INA, Et maintenant, «Panorama», 17 May 1968, 1h19′04′.
- 57.
Sirinelli, Mai 68, op. cit., pp. 216–219.
- 58.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 670.
- 59.
A. de Boissieu, Pour servir le Général, 1946–70, Paris, Plon, 1982, p. 176.
- 60.
J. Fauvet, Responsabilités, Le Monde, 12 May 1968, p. 1.
- 61.
“He appeared calm and relaxed as usual, self-confident with a slightly mocking air. Though he was tired after the long journey, […] he gave the impression of being strong and youthful, despite his white hair.” E. Balladur, L’arbre de mai, Paris, Plon, 1998, p. 74.
- 62.
Tournoux, Le mois de mai du Général, op. cit., p. 76.
- 63.
E. Roussel, Georges Pompidou 1911–1974, Paris, Perrin, 2004, p. 227.
- 64.
G. Pompidou, Pour rétablir une vérité, op. cit., p. 184.
- 65.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 676.
- 66.
Jacques Vendroux, the General’s nephew, said that after his meeting with Pompidou on 11 May, de Gaulle told him “I did not agree with him and I told him as much. But it is a decision that is in regard to his sphere of competence, not mine.” J. Vendroux, Ces grandes années que j’ai vécues…, Paris, Plon, 1975, p. 324. According to André Malraux the General would have told Pompidou: “It is your turn to play. If you win that is good. France will win with you. If you lose, too bad for you.” P. Alexandre, Le duel de Gaulle-Pompidou, Paris, Grasset, 1970, p. 221.
- 67.
Guichard, De Gaulle face aux crises, op. cit., p. 375.
- 68.
INA , Pompidou collection, 11 May 1968, 2′23″.
- 69.
Even in the student movement, Pompidou’s declarations were received with a cautious optimism, although students criticised the belatedness of his intervention. See, e.g., the radio interview given by Alain Geismar to France Inter in the INA archives. INA , Les premières réactions à la déclaration du Premier Ministre, 12 May 1968, 11′41.
- 70.
Tournoux, Le mois de mai du Général, op. cit., p. 77.
- 71.
C. Fouchet talking about Pompidou’s return said: “As far as I am concerned, the May 1968 story ends here.” Fouchet, Mémoires d’hier et de demain. Au service du Général, op. cit., p. 255.
- 72.
For an account of these events from Pompidou’s close allays who stood by him during the whole crisis, see E. Balladur, L’arbre de mai, op. cit.; M. Jobert, Mémoires d’avenir, Paris, Grasset, 1974; Id., L’Autre regard, Paris, Grasset, 1976.
- 73.
Roussel, Georges Pompidou, op. cit., pp. 230–231.
- 74.
Quagliariello, De Gaulle e il gollismo, op. cit., p. 628.
- 75.
F. Mitterrand, Journal Officiel de la République Française, Séance du mardi 14 mai 1968, p. 1.774.
- 76.
Pompidou’s answer to Mitterrand’s accusation was ambiguous and is open to different interpretations; his remark, “It is not me that embodies violence! It is not me that embodies intolerance!” could in fact refer to the protesters, or to the President of the Republic. G. Pompidou, Journal Officiel de la République Française, Séance du mardi 14 mai 1968, p. 1.776.
- 77.
The report of the Director of Programmes for channel one in the INA archives provides confirmation that the Prime Minister appeared on television and made an “unexpected statement that was recorded around 9.25 pm”. Viewers were given news of Pompidou’s speech soon after the 8 p.m. news. The speech was short and recorded only a few minutes before it went on air at around 9.25 p.m. It was broadcast at 9.34 p.m., causing disruption to the programme’s schedule. INA , Rapport du chef de chaîne, 16 May 1968.
- 78.
“I have given the university back to its professors and students, I have reached out to them […], I have freed the protesters who were in prison, I have granted an amnesty.” INA , Pompidou collection, 16 May 1968, 2′04″.
- 79.
Ibidem.
- 80.
The following day an editorial in Le Monde expressed appreciation of Pompidou’s speech: “The speech apparently has had the effect of discouraging some of the leaders of the student movement from occupying the O.R.T.F., or staging protests in front of their premises.” P. Viansson-Ponté, Le premier ministre a voulu donner un coup d’arrêt, Le Monde , 18 May 1968, p. 1.
- 81.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 681.
- 82.
M. Grimaud, En mai, fais ce qu’il te plaît, Paris, Stock, 1977, p. 324.
- 83.
Astoux, Ondes de choc, op. cit., p. 111.
- 84.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 682.
- 85.
P. Viansson-Ponté, Histoire de la République gaullienne, op. cit., p. 613.
- 86.
A IFOP survey dated 17 May showed that in the Paris area, 60% of those interviewed were on the whole in favour of student protests and 55% agreed with students’ criticism of society. See Guichard, De Gaulle face aux crises, op. cit, p. 381.
- 87.
A reconstruction of this meeting can be found in M. Grimaud, En mai, fais ce qu’il te plaît, op. cit., p. 209.
- 88.
Alexandre, Le duel de Gaulle-Pompidou, op. cit., p. 224.
- 89.
Reactions to the General’s behaviour during the 23 May cabinet are recorded in M. Debré, Entretiens avec le général de Gaulle 1961–69, Paris, Albin Michel, 1993, pp. 105–106.
- 90.
“For thirty years, on several occasions, I had no choice but to lead the country, and face my destiny […]. I am ready to do it again. But this time—especially this time—I need the French people to tell me what they want.” INA , de Gaulle collection, 24 October 1968, 6′10″.
- 91.
Tournoux, Le mois de mai du Général, op. cit., pp. 145–146.
- 92.
Guichard, De Gaulle face aux crises, op. cit., p. 389.
- 93.
Quoted in Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, p. 687.
- 94.
Recalling “a night of protests that were incredible for expansion, violence and length”, Maurice Grimaud wrote that between the nights of the 24th and 25th of May “for the first time, I had the sensation that the police could barely keep order without resorting to extreme measures.” M. Grimaud, “Mai 68, vingt ans après. L’état face à la crise”, in Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, 1, 1988, p. 71.
- 95.
Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, p. 687.
- 96.
INA , Pompidou collection, 25 May 1968, 4′46″.
- 97.
INA , Pompidou collection, 25 May 1968, 4′46″.
- 98.
J-F. Sirinelli, Mai 68, op. cit., p. 264.
- 99.
G. Quagliariello, De Gaulle e il gollismo, op. cit., p. 632.
- 100.
INA , de Gaulle collection, 27 May 1968, 10′26″.
- 101.
Television images of this press conference focused mainly on the room decor or the audience rather than the speaker. Moreover, Mitterrand was constantly shot from below contributing in this way to endow him with an arrogant demeanour. INA , Mitterrand collection, 28 May 1968, 7′03″.
- 102.
An illustration of the main interpretations of the 29 May 1968 events is provided in Joffrin, Mai 68, op. cit., pp. 338–343; Quagliariello, De Gaulle e il gollismo, op. cit., pp. 638–652.
- 103.
J. Massu, Baden 68, Paris, Plon, 1983.
- 104.
Pompidou, Pour rétablir, cit., op. p. 126.
- 105.
De Gaulle, Vers l’armée de métier, op. cit., p. 156.
- 106.
Viansson-Ponté, Histoire de la république gaullienne, op. cit., p. 641.
- 107.
The General’s entourage convinced him to bring forward his speech; this was initially scheduled from 8 p.m. to 4.30 p.m., in the hope that the speech would convince people to join the demonstration scheduled for 6 p.m. See P. Lefranc, personal communication, 30 November 2004. Details of this event are in P. Lefranc, Avec de Gaulle. 25 ans avec le général de Gaulle, Paris, Plon, 1989, p. 359.
- 108.
Pompidou, Pour rétablir une vérité, op. cit., p. 197.
- 109.
C. Mauriac, Les espaces imaginaires, Paris, Grasset, 1975, p. 264.
- 110.
Quoted in Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 717.
- 111.
F. Audigier, “Le malaise des jeunes gaullistes en Mai 68”, in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’histoire, 70, 2001, p. 84.
- 112.
“The Élysée inside appears almost deserted. A handful of guards I come across give the impression that they are waiting for an invasion. The porters, usually stiff, as imposed by etiquette, are gesticulating in the corridors […]. The Chief of Staff, Xavier de La Chevalerie, seems more preoccupied with preparations for removing dossiers than welcoming us.” Astoux, Ondes de choc, op. cit., p. 185.
- 113.
L. Joffrin, Mai 68, op. cit, pp. 352–353.
- 114.
Guichard, De Gaulle face aux crises, op. cit., p. 417.
- 115.
INA , de Gaulle collection, 30 May 1968, 4′29″.
- 116.
L. Joffrin, Mai 68, op. cit, pp. 352–353.
- 117.
Quoted in Lacouture, De Gaulle, III, op. cit., p. 718.
- 118.
Astoux, Ondes de choc, op. cit., p. 189.
- 119.
Sirinelli, Mai 68, op. cit., p. 291.
- 120.
INA , Télésoir, 30 May 1968, 4′19″.
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Brizzi, R. (2018). De Gaulle, Pompidou and May 1968. In: Charles De Gaulle and the Media. French Politics, Society and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65642-7_10
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