Abstract
Political ressentiments are shared emotional attitudes that are constantly (re)articulated in public discourses. Due to their textual (re)production, they are very amenable to interpretative research. To identify political ressentiments, researchers need to analyze discourses for articulations of cognitions, affective arousals and action tendencies that form the typical pattern of these negative emotional stereotypes. This chapter demonstrates how such a list of textual indicators can be derived from philosophical and psychological research into the nature of ressentiment. It then empirically illustrates the application of these heuristic tools by analyzing the SYRIZA administration’s discourse on Greek-German relations before concluding with a brief discussion of the benefits, wider applications and limitations of this kind of discourse analysis.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Notes
- 1.
This chapter partially draws upon Wolf (2015) and Wolf (forthcoming).
- 2.
- 3.
This temporal endurance is indeed a crucial element. Meltzer/Musolf reserve the French term “ressentiment” to this persistent feeling . I also use the English term, as it is widely understood as referring to a long-term emotion.
- 4.
Here the first three types of indicators are of special importance, while the absence of the latter two does not rule the presence of ressentiments. After all, alter may not yet have experienced status diminution.
- 5.
The 2016 book chapter referenced here is a condensed version of a book Kotzias (2013) had published in Greece. Unfortunately, there is no English version.
- 6.
- 7.
For a government statement stressing both Greece’s role as a “guardian of European culture” and its solidarity with “the [other] countries that are supporting the refugees , including Germany , Austria, Sweden and others”, see Xydakis 2016.
- 8.
References
Aydin, C. (2007). The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought. New York: Columbia University Press.
Barbalet, J. M. (1998). Emotion, Social Theory, and Social Structure: A Macrosociological Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bar-Tal, D., Halperin, E., & de Rivera, J. (2007). Collective Emotions in Conflict Situations: Societal Implications. Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 441–460.
Bially Mattern, J. (2011). A Practice Theory of Emotion for International Relations. In E. Adler & V. Pouliot (Eds.), International Practices (Cambridge Studies in International Relations) (Vol. 119, pp. 63–86). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crawford, N. C. (2014). Institutionalizing Passion in World Politics: Fear and Empathy. International Theory, 6(3), 535–557.
Feather, N. T. (2008). Effects of Observer’s Own Status on Reactions to a High Achiever’s Failure: Deservingness, Resentment, Schadenfreude, and Sympathy. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(1), 31–43.
Feather, N. T., & Nairn, K. (2005). Resentment, Envy, Schadenfreude, and Sympathy: Effects of Own and Other’s Deserved or Undeserved Status. Australian Journal of Psychology, 57(2), 87–102.
Feather, N. T., & Sherman, R. (2002). Envy, Resentment, Schadenfreude, and Sympathy: Reactions to Deserved and Undeserved Achievement and Subsequent Failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 953–961.
Frijda, N. H. (2008). The Psychologists’ Point of View. In J. M. Haviland-Jones, L. F. Barrett, & M. Lewis (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions (3rd ed., pp. 68–87). New York: Guilford Press.
Gries, P. H. (2004). China’s New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy. A Philip E. Lilienthal Book. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Haidt, J. (2013). The Righteous Mind: Why Good People are Divided by Politics and Religion. New York: Vintage Books.
Hall, T. H. (2016). “An Extremely Obnoxious and Illegal Case” Three Approaches to Emotion and Affect in the Aftermath of the Zhuhai Incident. Paper Presented at the Constructivist Emotion Research (CER) Workshop, April 8–9, Berlin.
Hall, T. H., & Ross, A. A. (2015). Affective Politics After 9/11. International Organization, 69(4), 847–879.
Hilton, J. L., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47(1), 237–271.
Hutchison, E., & Bleiker, R. (2014). Theorizing Emotions in World Politics. International Theory, 6(3), 491–514.
Kahneman, D. (2012). Thinking, Fast and Slow. London: Penguin Books.
Katzenstein, P. J., & Keohane, R. O. (Eds.). (2006). Anti-Americanisms in World Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Katzikas, D. (2015). Fragmentation and Exclusion: Understanding and Overcoming the Multiple Impacts of the European Crisis. Fragmex Papers. Retrieved September 4, 2017, from http://www.fragmex.eu/myfiles/Policyaper-on-Greek-Attitudes-and-Public-Discourses-on-Germany.pdf
Kolasa-Sikiaridi, K. (2016, August 18). Germany Still Refusing to Pay Billions of Euros in War Reparations to Greece. GreekReporter. Retrieved November 14, 2016, from http://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/08/18/germany-still-refusing-to-pay-billions-of-euros-in-war-reparations-to-greece/
Kotzias, N. (2013). Ellada apoikia chreous: Eurōpaikē autokratoria kai germanikē prōtokathedria. Politikē – Oikonomia. Athens: Anubis.
Kotzias, N. (2015a). Foreign Minister Kotzias’ Interview on AMNA Web TV: February 1, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/foreign-minister-kotzias-interview-on-amna-web-tv.html
Kotzias, N. (2015b). Foreign Minister Kotzias’ Interview with the German Daily Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (29 May 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/foreign-minister-kotzias-interview-with-the-german-daily-frankfurter-allgemeine-zeitung-faz-29-may-2015.html
Kotzias, N. (2015c). Foreign Minister Kotzias’ Interview with the German Daily Süddeutsche Zeitung’s Christiane Schlötzer (23 March 2015), Entitled “Greece’s Foreign Minister: ‘We Have to Find Another Path’”: 23 March 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/foreign-minister-kotzias-interview-with-the-german-daily-suddeutsche-zeitungs-christiane-schlotzer-23-march-2015-entitled-greeces-foreign-minister-we-have-to-find-another-path.html
Kotzias, N. (2015d). Foreign Minister Kotzias’ Interview with the German Television Networks ARD and ZDF (Riga, 7 March 2015). Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/foreign-minister-kotzias-interview-with-the-german-television-networks-ard-and-zdf-riga-march-2015.html
Kotzias, N. (2015e). Foreign Minister Kotzias’ Interview with Theodoros Andreadis Syggelakis in Huffington Post Italia (3 April 2015), Entitled “Europe Needs to Realize that Syriza Is Not a Passing Phase”. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/foreign-minister-kotzias-interview-with-theodoros-andreadis-syggelakis-in-huffington-post-italia-april-2015-entitled-europe-needs-to-realize-that-syriza-is-not-passing-phase.html
Kotzias, N. (2016). Schuldenkolonie Griechenland: Die EU als Imperium und Deutschlands Primat: Ein neuer Rahmen für die Interpretation der Krise in Südeuropa. In A. Agridopoulos & I. Papagiannopoulos (Eds.). Griechenland im europäischen Kontext: Krise und Krisendiskurse (pp. 39–65). Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Kotzias, N., & Steinmeier F.-W. (2015). Joint Statements of Foreign Minister Kotzias and German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier in Berlin: February 11, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/top-story/joint-statements-of-foreign-minister-kotzias-and-german-foreign-minister-frank-walter-steinmeier-in-berlin.html
Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, Anger, and Risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 146–159.
Mackie, D. M., Smith, E. R., & Ray, D. G. (2008). Intergroup Emotions and Intergroup Relations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(5), 1866–1880.
Matsumoto, D. R. (Ed.). (2009). The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of Emotion: A Review. Cognition & Emotion, 23(2), 209–237.
McDermott, R. (2004). The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science. Perspectives on Politics, 2(4), 691–706.
Meltzer, B. N., & Musolf, G. R. (2002). Resentment and Ressentiment. Sociological Inquiry, 72(2), 240–255.
Mercer, J. (2010). Emotional Beliefs. International Organization, 64(1), 1–31.
Mercer, J. (2014). Feeling Like a State: Social Emotion and Identity. International Theory, 6(3), 515–535.
Michailidou, A. (2016). ‘The Germans are Back’: Euroscepticism and Anti-Germanism in Crisis-Stricken Greece. National Identities, 19(1), 1–18.
Miller, D. T. (2001). Disrespect and the Experience of Injustice. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 527–553.
Mishra, P. (2012). From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt Against the West and the Remaking of Asia. London and New York: Allen Lane.
Nietzsche, F. W. (2008). On the Genealogy of Morals: A Polemic: By Way of Clarification and Supplement to My Last Book, Beyond Good and Evil [Translated from the German]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ntampoudi, I. (2014). The Eurozone Crisis and the Politics of Blaming: The Cases of Germany and Greece. Political Perspectives, 8(2), 1–20.
Oldmeadow, J. A., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). Contentment to Resentment: Variation in Stereotype Content Across Status Systems. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 12(1), 324–329.
Petersen, R. D. (2002). Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reginster, B. (1997). Nietzsche on Ressentiment and Valuation. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 57(2), 281–305.
Ross, A. A. G. (2006). Coming in from the Cold: Constructivism and Emotions. European Journal of International Relations, 12(2), 197–222.
Scheler, M. (1994). Ressentiment. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press.
Scott, J. C. (1990). Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2008). Intergroup Emotions. In J. M. Haviland-Jones, L. F. Barrett, & M. Lewis (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions (3rd ed., pp. 428–439). New York: Guilford Press.
Solomon, R. C. (1990). A Passion for Justice: Emotions and the Origin of the Social Contract. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Squires, N. (2015). Greek Election: Who Are Independent Greeks? The Telegraph. 26 January 2015. Retrieved August 23, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/11369309/Greek-election-who-are-Independent-Greeks.html
Tsipras, A. (2014a). Interview Alexis Tsipras: “The Dilemma We Face on Election Day Throughout Europe Is Clear: Either with the Left or with Austerity”: May 11, 2014. EuropeanLeft. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.european-left.org/node/2548
Tsipras, A. (2014b). Speech Delivered by Alexi Tsipras (Leader of SYRIZA, Thessaloniki, May 21, 2014). Retrieved August 22, 2016, from https://australiagreecesolidarity.wordpress.com/2014/05/22/syriza-leader-alexis-tsipras-addresses-thessaloniki/
Tsipras, A. (2015a). Give Us Six More Months, and We Will Be Another Country. Interview with Stern. 18 February 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/interview-with-greek-primeminister-alexis-tsipras-give-us-six-more-months-and-we-will-be-another-country--5944522.html
Tsipras, A. (2015b). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Address at the NO Rally in Syntagma Square: July 4, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/07/04/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-address-at-the-no-rally-in-syntagma-square/
Tsipras, A. (2015c). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Address Concerning the Referendum to Be Held on the 5th of July: June 27, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/06/27/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-address-concerning-the-referendum-to-be-held-on-the-5th-of-july/
Tsipras, A. (2015d). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Interview in Corriere della Sera Newspaper: June 9, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/06/09/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-interview-in-corriere-della-sera-newspaper/
Tsipras, A. (2015e). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Speech in the Greek Parliament Concerning the Mandate to Conclude the Negotiation: July 11, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/07/11/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-speech/
Tsipras, A. (2015f). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Speech in the Parliamentary Group of SYRIZA: June 17, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/06/17/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-speech-in-the-parliamentary-group-of-syriza/
Tsipras, A. (2015g). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Speech to Parliament Regarding the July 5th Referendum: June 28, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/06/28/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-speech-to-parliament-regarding-the-july-5th-referendum/
Tsipras, A. (2015h). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Speech to the European Parliament: July 8, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/07/08/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-speech-to-the-european-parliament/
Tsipras, A. (2015i). Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras’ Statement on the Latest Developments: June 28, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/06/28/prime-minister-alexis-tsipras-statement-concerning-on-the-latest-developments/
Tsipras, A. (2015j). Prime Minister’s A. Tsipras Speech in the Parliament During the Discussion Concerning the Reconstitution, Restructuring, and Upgrade of the Committee for the Pursuit of German Debts Owed to Greece: March 10, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/03/10/greek-pms-a-tsipras-speech-in-the-parliament-during-the-discussion-concerning-the-reconstitution-restructuring-and-upgrade-of-the-committee-for-the-pursuit-of-german-debts-owed-to-greece/
Tsipras, A. (2015k). Primeminister’s A. Tsipras Speech, During the Programmatic Statements of the Government: February 8, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://primeminister.gr/english/2015/02/08/primeministers-a-tsipras-speech-during-the-programmatic-statements-of-the-government/
Tzogopoulos, G. (2015). Assessing the Image of Germany in the Greek Media: Visual Analysis of Greek Media Reports on the Role of Germany in the Greek Crisis. Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy. Crisis Observatory Research Paper 18.
van Kleef, G. A., de Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 57–76.
van Kleef, G., van Dijk, E., Steinel, W., Harinck, F., & van Beest, I. (2008). Anger in Social Conflict: Cross-Situational Comparisons and Suggestions for the Future. Group Decision and Negotiation, 17(1), 13–30.
Varoufakis, Y. (2012). Fiscal Waterboarding Versus Eurobonds: Misrepresenting the Latter to Effect the Former. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from https://yanisvaroufakis.eu/2012/05/24/fiscal-waterboarding-versus-eurobonds-misrepresenting-the-latter-to-effect-the-former/
Varoufakis, Y. (2014). Italy, Greece and Europe After the European Parliament Elections: An Interview with Alessandro Bianchi: June 1, 2014. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from https://yanisvaroufakis.eu/2014/06/01/italy-greece-and-europe-after-the-european-parliament-elections-an-interview-with-alessandro-bianchi/
Varoufakis, Y. (2015a). We Crossed a Lot of Our Red Lines: Interview with Der Tagesspiegel, June 9, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.tagesspiegel.de/weltspiegel/in-english/yanis-varoufakis-interview-we-crossed-a-lot-of-our-red-lines/11890142.html
Varoufakis, Y. (2015b). Yanis Varoufakis Full Transcript: Our Battle to Save Greece: Interview with The New Satesman, July 13, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://www.newstatesman.com/world-affairs/2015/07/yanis-varoufakis-full-transcript-our-battle-save-greece
Waterfield, B. (2015). Greece’s Defence Minister Threatens to Send Migrants Including Jihadists to Western Europe. The Telegraph. 9 March 2015. Retrieved November 10, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11459675/Greeces-defence-minister-threatens-to-send-migrants-including-jihadists-to-Western-Europe.html
Wilson, D. C., & Davis, D. W. (2011). Reexamining Racial Resentment: Conceptualization and Content. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 634(1), 117–133.
Winter, E. (2014). Feeling Smart: Why Our Emotions Are More Rational than We Think. New York: Public Affairs.
Wolf, R. (2015). Emotionen in den internationalen Beziehungen: Das Beispiel Ressentiments. In K.-R. Korte (Ed.). Emotionen und Politik: Begründungen, Konzeptionen und Praxisfelder einer politikwissenschaftlichen Emotionsforschung (pp. 187–212). Baden-Baden: Nomos.
Wolf, R. (2016). On Monday, Our National Humiliation Will Be Over. We Will Finish with Orders from Abroad”: Status, Emotions, and the SYRIZA Government’s Rhetoric in the Greek Sovereign Debt Crisis. Paper prepared for the Constructivist Emotions Research (CER) workshop, Berlin, 2-3 September 2016.
Wolf, R. forthcoming. Identifying Emotional Reactions to Status Deprivations in Discourse. International Studies Review.
Xydakis, N. (2016). Alternate FM Xydakis’ Statement on the Refugee Issue, in Response to Statements from European Politicians: January 24, 2016. Retrieved April 5, 2017, from http://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/alternate-fm-xydakis-statement-on-the-refugee-issue-in-response-to-statements-from-european-politicians.html
Zafiropoulou, M., Theodosiou, A., Marini, Ι., & Papakonstantinou A. (2015). Discourse Analysis Report of Official and Political Documents for Greece: Public Discourse Analysis of the Greek Crisis: The Case of Greek Politicians’ Perceptions of the Germans and Readers’ Online Comments About Chancellor Merkel’s Visits to Athens. Fragmex papers. Retrieved November 11, 2016, from http://www.fragmex.eu/myfiles/d2-1-Discourse-analysis-report-of-official-and-political-documents-for-Greece-ver2.pdf
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wolf, R. (2018). Political Emotions as Public Processes: Analyzing Transnational Ressentiments in Discourses. In: Clément, M., Sangar, E. (eds) Researching Emotions in International Relations. Palgrave Studies in International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65575-8_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65575-8_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-65574-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-65575-8
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)