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Avoiding the Pitfalls of Diverging Interests

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Part of the book series: Global Political Transitions ((GLPOTR))

Abstract

A belief that China can enhance its economic relations and secure resources without becoming embroiled in the Middle East and North Africa’s pitfalls remains the basic instinct of Chinese leaders even though facts on the ground inevitably push them towards greater engagement.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Ibid. Xinhua, Full text of China’s Arab Policy Paper, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2016-01/13/c_135006619.htm

  2. 2.

    Yitzhak Shichor, Seeking truth from facts: China and the Middle east after the 19th CCP congress Middle East Institute NUS, Insight 176, 29 December 2017, https://mei.nus.edu.sg/index.php/web/publications_TMPL/insight-176-seeking-truth-from-facts-china-and-the-middle-east-after-the-19

  3. 3.

    Ibid. Shichor

  4. 4.

    Ibid. Shichor

  5. 5.

    Jin Liangxiang, China’s Role in the Middle East: Current Debates and Future Trends, China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, Vol. 3:1, p. 39–55

  6. 6.

    Andrew Scobell and Nader Alireza, China in the Middle East, the wary Dragon, Rand Corp., 2016, http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1229.html

  7. 7.

    Ma Xiaolin, #38 Event Report: Islamic Caliphate in Iraq: What Can China Do? thinkINchina, 22 October 2014, http://www.thinkinchina.asia/38-event-report/

  8. 8.

    Niu Xinchun and Xing Haibing, China’s Interests in and Influence over the Middle East, Contemporary International Relations (当代国际关系), Vol. 1, 2014, p. 37–58

  9. 9.

    Patrick E. Tyler, No Chemical Arms Aboard China Ship, The New York Times, 6 September 1993, http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/06/world/no-chemical-arms-aboard-china-ship.html

  10. 10.

    US Energy Information Administration China, 4 February 2014, http://www.eia.gov/countries/analysisbriefs/China/china.pdf

  11. 11.

    International Energy Agency, IEA releases Oil Market Report for February, 13 February 2014, https://www.iea.org/newsroomandevents/news/2014/february/ieareleasesoilmarketreportforfebruary.html

  12. 12.

    James M. Dorsey, China & the Middle East: Tilting Towards Iran? RSIS Commentary, 28 January 2016, http://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/CO16020.pdf

  13. 13.

    Reuters, Asia’s Iranian crude oil imports, Undated, http://graphics.thomsonreuters.com/iran-oil/index.html/Press TV, China’s oil imports from Iran up 19.5%, 21 June 2016, http://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2016/06/21/471506/Chinas-oil-imports-from-Iran-up-195

  14. 14.

    Irina Slav, Iran To Boost Oil Exports To China Further In August, Oilprice.com, 3 August 2017, http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Iran-To-Boost-Oil-Exports-To-China-Further-In-August.html

  15. 15.

    Michael Meidan, Amrita Sen and Robert Campbell, China: “the new normal,” The Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, February 2015, http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/China-the-new-normal.pdf

  16. 16.

    Keith Johnson, China Tops U.S. as Biggest Oil Importer, Foreign Policy, 11 May 2015, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/11/china-tops-u-s-as-biggest-oil-importer-middle-east-opec-sloc/

  17. 17.

    Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, China Now Exports as Much Diesel Fuel and Gasoline as Saudi Arabia Does, China Signpost, 14 November 2016, http://www.chinasignpost.com/2016/11/14/china-now-exports-as-much-diesel-fuel-and-gasoline-as-saudi-arabia-does/

  18. 18.

    Kenneth Rapozza, Internationalization of China Currency Continues with Qatar Deal, Forbes, 4 November 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2014/11/04/internationalization-of-china-currency-continues-with-qatar-deal/

  19. 19.

    Simeon Kerr, Will China Buy Aramco? Financial Times, 21 August 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/0141ef20-0e4f-3b1b-b48e-d3c3c5a17968

  20. 20.

    Abu Dhabi National Oil Company, ADNOC Awards China National Petroleum Corporation 8% Stake in ADCO Onshore Concession, 19 February 2017, https://www.adnoc.ae/en/news-and-media/press-releases/2017/adnoc-awards-china-national-petroleum-corporation-stake-in-adco-onshore-concession

  21. 21.

    Najmeh Bozorgmehr, China overtakes EU to become Tehran’s largest trading ally, The Irish Times, 9 February 2010, https://www.irishtimes.com/news/china-overtakes-eu-to-become-tehran-s-largest-trading-ally-1.619509

  22. 22.

    Saeed Shah, China to Build Pipeline from Iran to Pakistan, The Wall Street Journal, 9 April 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-to-build-pipeline-from-iran-to-pakistan-1428515277

  23. 23.

    Saeed Shah and Jeremy Page, China Readies $46 Billion for Pakistan Trade Route, The Wall Street Journal, 16 April 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-to-unveil-billions-of-dollars-in-pakistan-investment-1429214705

  24. 24.

    Andrew Stevens, Pakistan Lands $46 Billion Investment from China, CNN Money, 20 April 2015, http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/20/news/economy/pakistan-china-aid-infrastucture/index.html

  25. 25.

    Umbreen Javaid, Assessing CPEC: Potential Threats and Prospects, Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, Vol. 53:2, p. 254–269

  26. 26.

    Janet Xuanli Liao, China’s Energy Diplomacy and Its “Peaceful Rise” Ambition: The Cases of Sudan and Iran, Asian Journal of Peacebuilding, Vol: 1:2, p. 197–225

  27. 27.

    Fars News Agency, Iran, China to Launch Oil Export Terminal in Qeshm Island, 15 June 2016, http://en.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn=13950326001000

  28. 28.

    AsiaNews, Tehran signs billion dollar energy agreements with China and Russia, 17 July 2016, http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Tehran-signs-billion-dollar-energy-agreements-with-China-and-Russia--38605.html

  29. 29.

    International Gas Union, 2016 World LNG Report, 2016, www.igu.org/download/file/fid/2123

  30. 30.

    Micha’el Tanchum, A Post-Sanctions Iran and the Eurasian Energy Architecture, Atlantic Council, September 2015, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/images/publications/Iran_Energy_Architecture_web_0925.pdf

  31. 31.

    Wade Shepherd, China’s Hunger For Energy Resources Is What’s Driving The Belt And Road, Forbes, 13 October 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/10/13/chinas-hunger-for-energy-resources-is-whats-driving-the-belt-and-road/#33ab819e67ef

  32. 32.

    US Embassy Dushanbe, Chinese interest in Tajikistan increases, Wikileaks, 7 August 2009, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09DUSHANBE954_a.html

  33. 33.

    Xinhua, Iran, China, France sign $4.8 billion gas deal, 4 July 2017, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-07/04/content_29985566.htm

  34. 34.

    Dawn, Stronger Pak-Iran defence ties to serve regional peace: Bajwa, 5 March 2017, https://www.dawn.com/news/1318523

  35. 35.

    Benoit Faucon, Iran Cancels $2.5 Billion Contract with Chinese Oil Company, The Wall Street Journal, 29 April 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303939404579531111999051656

  36. 36.

    Press TV, Iran Awards New Oil Project to China Company, 5 May 2015, http://presstv.com/Detail/2015/05/05/409557/Iran-oil-China-Azadegan

  37. 37.

    Tehran Bureau, China floods Iran with cheap consumer goods in exchange for oil, The Guardian, 20 February 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2013/feb/20/china-floods-iran-cheap-consumer-goods

  38. 38.

    Charles Clover, Heba Saleh, Najmeh Bozorgmehr, and Simeon Kerr, Xi faces diplomatic test on first Middle East visit, Financial Times, 18 January 2016, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6ce8bb08-bdbf-11e5-846f-79b0e3d20eaf.html?ftcamp=published_links%2Frss%2Fworld_asia-pacific_china%2Ffeed%2F%2Fproduct#axzz3xcDnbvIw

  39. 39.

    Iran Daily, Iranian, Chinese Officials to Hold Oil Talks, 7 April 2015, http://www.iran-daily.com/News/115047.html

  40. 40.

    BBC News, China to double Iranian investment, 16 November 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30075807

  41. 41.

    Agence France Press, First “Silk Road” train arrives in Tehran from China, 16 February 2016, https://news.yahoo.com/first-silk-road-train-arrives-tehran-china-134703954.html?soc_src=mail&soc_trk=ma

  42. 42.

    John C. K. Daly, China and Kazakhstan to Construct a Trans-Kazakhstan Railway Line From Khorgos to Aktau, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Vol. 12:94, 20 May 2015, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=43934&cHash=30f9f55ee09e00fc849b8d0e8572761b

  43. 43.

    Reuters, Iran and Italy sign 1.2 billion euro railway deal: Fars, 11 July 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-italy-railway/iran-and-italy-sign-1-2-billion-euro-railway-deal-fars-idUSKBN19W1PY

  44. 44.

    Jonathan Fulton, The G.C.C. Countries and China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Curbing Their Enthusiasm? Middle East Institute, 17 October 2017, http://www.mei.edu/content/map/gcc-countries-and-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative#_ftnref13

  45. 45.

    Nolan D. McKaskill, Trump knocks Iran deal after Tehran tests missile, Politico, 23 September 2017, http://www.politico.com/story/2017/09/23/trump-iran-deal-missile-test-243058

  46. 46.

    Federation of American Scientists, Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 31 December 2011, February 2012, https://fas.org/irp/threat/wmd-acq2011.pdf

  47. 47.

    John W. Garver, China and Iran: Expanding Cooperation under Conditions of US Domination in Niv Horesh (ed), Toward Well-Oiled Relations? China’s Presence in the Middle East Following the Arab Spring, Houndsmill, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 180–206

  48. 48.

    Zhu Jiejin, Zhongguo he yilang guanxi shigao (Draft history of China-Iran relations), Urumqi: Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, 1998, quoted in Garver, China and Iran

  49. 49.

    Ibid. Garver

  50. 50.

    Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, The Shah’s Story, London: Michael Joseph, 1980, p. 147

  51. 51.

    Reuters, China aims to boost military relations with Iran, 5 May 2014, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/05/05/uk-china-iran-idUKKBN0DL0DU20140505

  52. 52.

    John Calabrese, Peaceful or Dangerous Collaborators? China’s Relations with the Gulf Countries, Pacific Affairs, Vol. 65:4, p. 471–485

  53. 53.

    Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Arms Transfer Database, https://www.sipri.org/databases/armstransfers

  54. 54.

    Mark Thompson and James M. Dorsey, Pentagon Pool report, US Department of Defence, 23 July 1987

  55. 55.

    Jane’s Strategic Weapons Systems, Surrey: Jane’s Information Service, Volume 100–101, 1990

  56. 56.

    John W. Garver, China and Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-Imperial World, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006, p. 182–189

  57. 57.

    Ibid. SIPRI

  58. 58.

    Louis Charbonneau, North Korea, Iran trade missile technology: U.N., Reuters, 15 May 2011, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-iran-un/north-korea-iran-trade-missile-technology-u-n-idUSTRE74D18Z20110515 / Interviews with diplomats 2011–2014

  59. 59.

    John Garver, China–Iran Relations: Cautious Friendship with America’s Nemesis, China Report, Vol 49:1, p. 69–88

  60. 60.

    Robert F. Worth and C. J. Chivers, Seized Chinese Weapons Raise Concerns on Iran, The New York Times, 2 March 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/03/world/middleeast/seized-arms-off-yemen-raise-alarm-over-iran.html

  61. 61.

    United Press International, China opens missile plant in Iran, 23 April 2010, http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2010/04/23/China-opens-missile-plant-in-Iran/82791272037022/

  62. 62.

    Michael Mazza, China-Iran Ties: Assessment and Implications for U.S. Policy, American Enterprise Institute, 21 April 2011, http://www.irantracker.org/analysis/michael-mazza-china-iran-ties-assessment-and-implications-us-policy-april-21-2011

  63. 63.

    Zachary Keck, China Calls Iran a “Strategic Partner,” The Diplomat, 6 May 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/05/china-calls-iran-a-strategic-partner/

  64. 64.

    Scott Harold and Alireza Nader, China and Iran, Economic, Political, and Military Relations, RAND Corporation, 2012, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/occasional_papers/2012/RAND_OP351.pdf

  65. 65.

    Ben Blanchard, Chinese admiral visits Iran, wants closer defense cooperation, Reuters, 14 October 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-iran-idUSKCN0S907Q20151015

  66. 66.

    US Department of the Treasury, Treasury Sanctions Those Involved in Ballistic Missile Procurement for Iran, 17 January 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0322.aspx/US Department of the Treasury, Non-proliferation Designations, 17 January 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20160117.aspx

  67. 67.

    Paul Mozur, U.S. Fines ZTE of China $1.19 Billion for Breaching Sanctions, The New York Times, 7 March 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/08/technology/us-restricts-sales-to-zte-saying-it-breached-sanctions.html

  68. 68.

    US Department of Commerce, Secretary of Commerce Wilbur L. Ross, Jr. Announces $1.19 Billion Penalty for Chinese Company’s Export Violations to Iran and North Korea, 7 March 2017, https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2017/03/secretary-commerce-wilbur-l-ross-jr-announces-119-billion-penalty

  69. 69.

    Charles Riley, Chinese firm fined $1.2 billion for violating U.S. sanctions on Iran, CNN, 78 March 2017, http://money.cnn.com/2017/03/07/technology/zte-china-iran-sanctions/

  70. 70.

    US Embassy Beijing, Staffdel Januzzi discusses non-proliferation, Iran and DRK with MFA arms control director general, Wikileaks, 26 March 2008, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08BEIJING1141_a.html

  71. 71.

    Ibid. Pan Guang

  72. 72.

    Ibid. Garver, China-Iran Relations

  73. 73.

    Ibid. Garver, p. 156–158

  74. 74.

    David Albright and Andrea Stricker, Iran’s Nuclear Program in Roin Wright (ed), The Iran Primer, Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 2010

  75. 75.

    United Nations Security Council, Note by the President of the Security Council, 29 November 2013 http://repository.un.org/bitstream/handle/11176/24591/S_2013_668-EN.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

  76. 76.

    Maria Sultan, Iran, Proliferation Magnet, SAIS Review of International Affairs, Vol. 25:1, p. 123–138

  77. 77.

    Manochehr Dorraj, The Future of Sino-Iranian Relations in Niv Horesh (ed), Toward Well-Oiled Relations? China’s Presence in the Middle East Following the Arab Spring, Houndsmill, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 206–216

  78. 78.

    Dan Coughlin, US Sounds Alarm over Iranian Nuclear Threat, The Telegraph, 23 February 1997

  79. 79.

    Director General, IAEA, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran, International Atomic Energy Agency, GOV/2004/60, 1 September 2004, http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2004/gov2004-60.pdf

  80. 80.

    Mark Hibbs, US Warned Not to Try Using IAEA to Isolate or Destabilize Iran, Nuclear Review, April 1996

  81. 81.

    Daniel Byman and Roger Cliff, China’s Arms Sales, Motivations and Implications, Rand Corp. 1999, https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1119.html#download

  82. 82.

    Bates Gill, Chinese Arms Exports to Iran in P. R. Kumaraswamy, China and the Middle East, the Quest for Influence, New Delhi: Sage, p. 117–141

  83. 83.

    Ibid., Garver, China–Iran Relations

  84. 84.

    Iranian Students’ News Agency, Contract Signed to Redesign Arak Reactor (قرارداد-بازطراحی-راکتور-اراک-امضا-شد), 21 April, 2017, www.isna.ir/news/96020301473/ قرارداد-بازطراحی-راکتور-اراک-امضا-شد

  85. 85.

    Harold Pachios, Let’s look at China’s role in the Iran nuclear deal, The Hill, 21 August 2015, http://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/251657-lets-look-at-chinas-role-in-the-iran-nuclear-deal

  86. 86.

    Ibid. Middle East Eye, China’s Saudi drone factory compensates for US ban

  87. 87.

    Ian Armstrong, What’s Behind China’s Big New Drone Deal? The Diplomat, 20 April 2017, http://thediplomat.com/2017/04/whats-behind-chinas-big-new-drone-deal/

  88. 88.

    Alvin Cheng-Hin Lim, King Salman’s Visit Deepens Sino-Saudi Cooperation, IPP Review, 21 March 2017, http://ippreview.com/index.php/Home/Blog/single/id/379.html

  89. 89.

    Sarah Burkhard, Erica Wenig, David Albright, and Andrea Stricker, Saudi Arabia’s Nuclear Ambitions and Proliferation Risks, Institute for Science and International Security, 30 March 2017, http://freebeacon.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/SaudiArabiaProliferationRisks_30Mar2017_Final.pdf

  90. 90.

    Sylvia Westall, Saudi Arabia to extract uranium for “self-sufficient” nuclear program, Reuters, 30 October 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-nuclear/saudi-arabia-to-extract-uranium-for-self-sufficient-nuclear-program-idUSKBN1CZ1ON

  91. 91.

    Sean O’Connor, Saudi ballistic missile site revealed, IHS Jane’s Defence Weekly, 10 July 2013 / Jeffrey Lewis, Saudi Arabia’s Strategic Dyad, Arms Control Wonk, 15 July 2013, http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/206688/saudi-arabias-strategic-dyad/

    Jeffrey Lewis, Why Did Saudi Arabia Buy Chinese Missiles? Foreign Policy, 30 January 2014, https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/30/why-did-saudi-arabia-buy-chinese-missiles/

  92. 92.

    Ali Bin Ghirsan, East Wind strengthens anti-tank and aircraft defense رياح الشرق» تعزز ترسانة الردع و”الدبابة) الطائرة» هجومية مدمرة”), Okaz 17 September 2014, http://okaz.com.sa/article/946108/

  93. 93.

    Khaled bin Sultan with Patrick Seale, Desert Warrior: A Personal View of the Gulf War by the Joint Forces Commander, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, p. 150

  94. 94.

    Ibid. Bin Sultan, p. 148

  95. 95.

    Joseph A. Kéchichian, Saudi Arabia and China: The Security Dimension, Middle East Institute, 9 February 2016, http://www.mei.edu/content/map/saudi-arabia-and-china-security-dimension

  96. 96.

    John Calabrese, Saudi Arabia and China Extend Ties Beyond Oil, China Brief, Vol.5:20, 27 September 2005

  97. 97.

    Zachary Keck, Saudi Arabia May Buy Pakistani-Chinese Fighter Jets, The Diplomat, 24 January 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/01/saudi-arabia-may-buy-pakistani-chinese-fighter-jets/

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Dorsey, J.M. (2019). Avoiding the Pitfalls of Diverging Interests. In: China and the Middle East. Global Political Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64355-7_4

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