Abstract
This chapter examines women’s numeric representation in national legislatures as it relates to women’s political empowerment. Women’s presence in parliament symbolizes the political empowerment of female citizens, broadly defined, as higher levels of representation signal the openness, inclusivity, and equity of the political system. Yet women’s presence in legislatures may not translate into high levels of individual empowerment for female lawmakers. Institutional, organizational, and structural barriers—such as masculine cultures and male-dominated political parties—limit women’s abilities to exercise their talents and qualifications. Future research should examine how this measure of political empowerment varies across different conceptualizations of “women.” Scholars should examine not just women as a group but women as individuals and as differentiated by race, ethnicity, class, and other identity-based categories.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
We use these terms interchangeably to refer to countries’ lawmaking institutions.
- 2.
Uruguay adopted a one-time gender quota law, in force only for the 2014 elections. In March 2017 the Senate approved legislation to make the quota permanent from 2019 onwards. This legislation did not pass in the lower house, however, so the fate of the quota policy remains uncertain.
- 3.
Countries accurate as of January 2017.
References
Alexander, A. C. (2012). Change in Women’s Descriptive Representation and the Belief in Women’s Ability to Govern: A Virtuous Circle. Politics & Gender, 8(4), 437–464.
Alexander, A. C. (2015). Big Jumps in Women’s Presence in Parliaments: Are These Sufficient for Improving Beliefs in Women’s Ability to Govern? Advancing Women in Leadership, 35, 82–89.
Alexander, A. C., & Welzel, C. (2011). Empowering Women: The Role of Emancipative Beliefs. European Sociological Review, 27(3), 364–384.
Anzia, S. F., & Berry, C. R. (2011). The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson Effect: Why Do Congresswomen Outperform Congressmen? American Journal of Political Science, 55(3), 478–493.
Baldez, L. (2002). Why Women Protest. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ballington, J. (2008). Equality in Politics: A Survey of Women and Men in Parliaments. Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union.
Baltrunaite, A., Bello, P., Casarico, A., & Profeta, P. (2014). Gender Quotas and the Quality of Politicians. Journal of Public Economics, 118, 62–74.
Barnes, T. D. (2016). Gendering Legislative Behavior: Institutional Constraints and Collaboration. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Barnes, T. D., & Córdova, A. (2016). Making Space for Women: Explaining Citizen Support for Legislative Gender Quotas in Latin America. Journal of Politics, 78(3), 670–686.
Barnes, T. D., & Burchard, S. M. (2012). ‘Engendering’ Politics: The Impact of Descriptive Representation on Women’s Political Engagement in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative Political Studies, 46(7), 767–790.
Beaman, L., Chattopadhyay, R., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2009). Powerful Women: Does Exposure Reduce Bias? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12(4), 1497–1540.
Beaman, L., Pande, R., & Cirone, A. (2012). Politics as a Male Domain and Empowerment in India. In S. Franceschet, M. L. Krook, & J. M. Piscopo (Eds.), The Impact of Gender Quotas (pp. 208–226). New York: Oxford University Press.
Bejarano, C. (2013). The Latina Advantage: Gender, Race, and Political Success. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Besley, T. J., Folke, O., Persson, T., & Rickne, J. (2015). Gender Quotas and the Crisis of the Mediocre Man: Theory and Evidence from Sweden. American Economic Review, 107(8), 2204–2242.
Bjarnegård, E., & Kenny, M. (2016). Comparing Candidate Selection: A Feminist Institutionalist Approach. Government & Opposition, 51(3), 370–392.
Bjarnegård, E., & Zetterberg, P. (2016). Political Parties and Gender Quota Implementation: The Role of Bureaucratized Candidate Selection Procedures. Comparative Politics, 48(3), 393–417.
Bolzendahl, C. (2014). Opportunities and Expectations: The Gendered Organization of Legislative Committees in Germany, Sweden, and the United States. Gender & Society, 28(6), 847–976.
Caul, M. (2001). Political Parties and the Adoption of Candidate Gender Quotas: A Cross-National Analysis. Journal of Politics, 63(4), 1214–1229.
Celis, K., & Erzeel, S. (2017). The Complementarity Advantage: Parties, Representatives, and Newcomers’ Access to Power. Parliamentary Affairs, 70(1), 43–61.
Clayton, A. (2015). Women’s Political Engagement Under Quota-mandated Female Representation: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment. Comparative Political Studies, 48(3), 333–369.
Dahlerup, D., & Freidenvall, L. (2005). Quotas as a ‘Fast Track’ to Equal Representation of Women. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 7(1), 26–48.
Dahlerup, D., & Norris, P. (2014). On the Fast Track: An Integrated Theory for the Global Spread of Electoral Gender Quotas. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, August 28–31.
Franceschet, S., & Piscopo, J. M. (2008). Gender Quotas and Women’s Substantive Representation: Lessons from Argentina. Politics & Gender, 4(3), 393–425.
Franceschet, S., & Piscopo, J. M. (2014). Sustaining Gendered Practices? Power and Elite Networks in Argentina. Comparative Political Studies, 47(1), 86–111.
Fulton, S. A. (2012). Running Backwards and in High Heels: The Gendered Quality Gap and Incumbent Electoral Success. Political Research Quarterly, 65(2), 303–314.
Fulton, S. A. (2014). When Gender Matters: Macro-dynamics and Micro-mechanisms. Political Behavior, 36(3), 605–630.
Funk, K., Hinojosa, M., & Piscopo, J. M. 2018. Still Left Behind: Gender, Political Parties, and Latin America’s Pink Tide. Social Politics [in press].
Hinojosa, M. (2012). Selecting Women, Electing Women: Political Representation and Candidate Selection in Latin America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Hinojosa, M., Fridkin, K. L., & Kittilson, M. C. (2017). The Impact of Descriptive Representation on “Persistent” Gender Gaps: Political Engagement and Political Trust in Uruguay. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 5(3), 435–453.
Hughes, M. M. (2011). Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women’s Political Representation Worldwide. American Political Science Review, 105(3), 604–620.
Hughes, M. M. (2013). The Intersection of Gender and Minority Status in National Legislatures: The Minority Women Legislative Index. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 38(4), 489–516.
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). (2017a). 50 Years of History at a Glance. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/history.htm
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). (2017b). Situation as of 1st January 2017: World Average. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). (2017c). Situation as of 1st January 2017: World Classification. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm
Joshi, D., & Och, M. (2014). Talking About My Generation and Class: Unpacking the Descriptive Representation of Women in Asian Parliaments. Women’s Studies International Forum, 47(A), 168–179.
Kanthak, K., & Krause, G. A. (2012). The Diversity Paradox: Political Parties, Legislatures, and the Organizational Foundations of Representation in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kathlene, L. (1995). Ways Women Politicians Are Making a Difference. In D. L. Dodson (Ed.), Gender and Policymaking (pp. 31–39). New Brunswick: Center for Women in American Politics.
Kerevel, Y. P., & Atkeson, L. R. (2013). Explaining the Marginalization of Women in Legislative Institutions. The Journal of Politics, 75(4), 980–992.
Kittilson, M. C. (2006). Challenging Parties, Changing Parliaments: Women and Elected Office in Contemporary Western Europe. Ohio: Ohio State University Press.
Kittilson, M., & Schwindt-Bayer, L. (2012). The Gendered Effects of Electoral Institutions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Krook, M. L. (2017). Violence Against Women in Politics. Journal of Democracy, 28(1), 74–88.
Lawless, J. L., & Fox, R. L. (2010). It Still Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mügge, L. (2016). Intersectionality, Recruitment, and Candidate Selection: Ethnic Minority Candidates in Dutch Parties. Parliamentary Affairs, 69(3), 512–530.
Murray, R. (2010). Second Among Equals? A Study of Whether France’s “Quota Women” Are Up to the Job. Politics & Gender, 6(1), 93–118.
Norris, P., & Lovenduski, J. (1995). Political Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British Parliament. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Brien, D. Z. (2012). Quotas and Qualifications in Uganda. In S. Franceschet, M. L. Krook, & J. M. Piscopo (Eds.), The Impact of Gender Quotas (pp. 57–71). New York: Oxford University Press.
O’Brien, D. Z. (2015). Rising to the Top: Gender, Political Performance, and Party Leadership in Parliamentary Democracies. American Journal of Political Science, 59(4), 1022–1039.
O’Brien, D. Z. (2016). Righting Conventional Wisdom: Women and Right Parties in Advanced Parliamentary Democracies. Presented at the APSA Conference, Philadelphia.
O’Brien, D. Z., & Rickne, J. (2016). Gender Quotas and Women’s Political Leadership. American Political Science Review, 110(1), 112–126.
O’Brien, D. Z., & Piscopo, J. M. (Forthcoming). The Impact of Women in Parliament. In S. Franceschet, M. L. Krook, & N. Tan (Eds.), Global Handbook of Women’s Political Rights. New York: Palgrave.
Paxton, P. (1997). Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-national Analysis. Social Science Research, 26(4), 442–464.
Paxton, P., & Hughes, M. M. (2016). Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Paxton, P., & Kunovich, S. (2003). Women’s Political Representation: The Importance of Ideology. Social Forces, 81(5), 87–114.
Picado León, H., & Brenes Villalobos, L. D. (2014). Evaluando la paridad y la alternancia. Derecho Electoral, 18, 384–414.
Piscopo, J. M. (2015). States as Gender Equality Activists: The Evolution of Quota Laws in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society, 57(3), 29–42.
Piscopo, J. M. (2016). When Informality Advantages Women: Quota Networks, Electoral Rules, and Candidate Selection in Mexico. Government & Opposition, 51(3), 487–512.
Piscopo, J. M. (2018). Parity without Equality in Costa Rica. In L. Schwindt-Bayer (Ed.), Gender and Representation in Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Preece, J. R. (2016). Mind the Gender Gap: An Experiment on the Influence of Self-efficacy on Political Interest. Politics & Gender, 12(1), 198–217.
Roberts, A., Seawright, J., & Cyr, J. (2013). Do Electoral Laws Affect Women’s Representation? Comparative Political Studies, 46(12), 1555–1581.
Schneider, M. C., Holman, M. R., Diekman, A. B., & McAndrew, T. (2015). Power, Conflict, and Community. Political Psychology, 37(4), 515–531.
Schwindt-Bayer, L. (2011). Women Who Win: Social Backgrounds, Paths to Power, and Political Ambition in Latin American Legislatures. Politics & Gender, 7(1), 1–33.
Shames, S. (2017). Out of the Running: Why Millennials Reject Political Careers and Why It Matters. New York: New York University Press.
United Nations. (2014). Table 1: Human Development Index and Its Components. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI
United Nations. (2015). Gender Development Index. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GDI
Weeks, A. C., & Baldez, L. (2015). Quotas and Qualifications: The Impact of Gender Quota Laws on the Qualifications of Legislators in the Italian Parliament. European Political Science Review, 7(1), 119–144.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
O’Brien, D.Z., Piscopo, J.M. (2018). Electing Women to National Legislatures. In: Alexander, A., Bolzendahl, C., Jalalzai, F. (eds) Measuring Women’s Political Empowerment across the Globe. Gender and Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64006-8_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64006-8_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-64005-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-64006-8
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)