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Targeting New Music in Postwar Europe: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Crafting of Art Music Avant-Garde Scenes

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International Relations, Music and Diplomacy

Abstract

Highbrow music creation has been subject to extraordinary avant-gardist blooming on both sides of the Atlantic in the wake of the World War II. This period of intense innovation has been marked by very active intervention of cultural diplomacies in a Cold War context: cultural diplomacy of the Americans (governmental and non-governmental) in Europe and of the European Allies in their occupation zones in Germany. Yet Cold War studies have examined the implication of American cultural diplomacy in the formation of European elites (Grémion, Gemelli, Berghahn, etc.), the study of its impact on highbrow music creation has often focused on the Parisian intellectual debate (Sartre, Leibowitz) at the very end of the 1950s, and more particularly on the festival organized by Nicolas Nabokov in Paris in 1952 (“L’Œuvre du XXe siècle”) as well as its Roman twin of 1954 (Carroll, Saunders, Giroud). Other studies have also focused on exchanges between musicians (Beal, Fosler-Lussier).

The interactions between worldwide, European and local Parisian strategies led by actors of the Congress for Cultural Freedom until 1967 are here considered under the angle of the concept of “scene”. It appears indeed that esthetical orientations—particularly in the scope of music creation—have taken local precedence over general cultural politics and that purely musical objectives have joined and then thrived on projects that were initially cultural diplomacy.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    CCF ’s action during the 1950s and 1960s was mostly investigated under this angle of view in Frances Stonor Saunders ’s Who paid the Piper?: The CIA and the Cultural Cold War which has taken advantage of this appealing air of scandal, focusing on operations’ modes and relations between the CIA and the different actors involved in this organization. The recent Nicolas Nabokov: A Life in Freedom and Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015) by Vincent Giroud sheds new and more nuanced light on this question. For a discussion of Saunder ’s position, see also W. Scott Lucas, “Beyond Freedom, Beyond Control: Approaches to Culture and the State-Private Network in the Cold War,” in Giles Scott-Smith and Krabbendam, Hans (eds.), The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe (London: Frank Cass, 2003), pp. 55–57; and Jessica Gienow-Hecht, “How Good Are We? Culture and the Cold War,” in Scott-Smith & Krabbendam (eds.), The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, pp. 272–274.

  2. 2.

    For the definition of public diplomacy, see Jan Melissen, Chap. 1: “The New Public Diplomacy: Between Theory and Practice,” The New Public Diplomacy, p. 16.

  3. 3.

    For the notion of “cultural scene,” see La notion de “scène”, entre sociologie de la culture et sociologie urbaine: genèse, actualités et perspectives, Cahiers de recherche sociologique 57 (Fall 2014), and more particularly the article by Straw, “Scènes: ouvertes et restreintes:” 17–32.

  4. 4.

    Among others: Volker Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe: Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001); Giuliana Gemelli (ed.), The Ford Foundation and Europe (1950s–1970s): Cross-fertilisation of Learning in Social Science and Management (Brussel: Interuniversity Press, 1998); Pierre Grémion, Intelligence de l’anticommunisme: Le Congrès pour la Liberté de la Culture (1950–1975) (Paris: Fayard, 1995).

  5. 5.

    For the composition of his Music of Changes (1951), Cage involved chance by the procedure of drawing lots, according to the Chinese divination book I Ching.

  6. 6.

    See Amy C. Beal, New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany from the Zero Hour to Reunification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), pp. 44–51 for the implication of OMGUS and HICOG in the beginning of Darmstädter Ferienkurse; pp. 64–71, for Cage’s programming in Donaueschingen; and Barthel-Calvet “Un stratège de l’avant-garde: le rôle de Heinrich Strobel dans le redémarrage des Donaueschinger Musiktage après 1945”, in Jean-Paul Aubert, Serge Milan and Jean-François Trubert (eds.), Avant-gardes: frontières, mouvements, vol.1: Délimitations, historiographies (Sampzon: Delatour, 2012), pp. 201–227, for the restarting of Donaueschingen Musiktage. For the details of Darmstädter Ferienkurse’s programmation, see Borio and Danuser, Im Zenith…, vol. 3 ; for the details of Donaueschingen Musiktage, see Josef Häusler, Spiegel der Neuen Musik: Donaueschingen—Chronik—Tendenzen—Werkbesprechungen (Cassel/Stuttgart: Bärenreiter/Metzler, 1996), pp. 436–443.

  7. 7.

    See Beal, New Music, New Allies, chapter 1: “The American Occupation and Agents of Reeducation—1945–1950”, pp. 8–51.

  8. 8.

    For a complete knowledge of Nabokov’s life and works, see the extensive biography: Vincent Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov: A Life in Freedom and Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

  9. 9.

    For a complete account of the event, see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 216–222; Saunders, Who paid the piper?, pp. 57–67.

  10. 10.

    See for details of this building’s period of the CCF, Grémion, Intelligence de l’anti-communisme, chap. II, pp. 53–97; Saunders, Who paid the piper?, pp. 96–114.

  11. 11.

    For instance, with the East-West Encounters held in Tokyo in 1961 and in New Delhi in 1964.

  12. 12.

    This process tends to differ with the dissemination of musics and styles from a specific local scene as described in Michela Berti’s chapter (see Chap. 2 in this volume), focusing on the Roman scene.

  13. 13.

    Straw, “Two Kinds of Scenes,” pp. 2–3.

  14. 14.

    As early as the mid-1940s, Nabokov was in close relation with the circle of nonpartisan foreign policy advisers called “The Wise Men.” Mostly former Ivy Leaguers, experts on European issues, they were involved in the immediate postwar reconstruction in Europe and struggle against communism. Bohlen occupied diverse ambassador’s positions (including in the URSS); Stone was Director of International Affairs at the Ford Foundation and Slater, President of the Aspen Institute.

  15. 15.

    “Art mexicain du précolombien à nos jours,” May–July 1952. The catalogue was edited by the “Presses artistiques de Paris,” as the one of the exhibition “L’Œuvre du XXe siècle: peintures, sculptures.”

  16. 16.

    Berghahn, America and the intellectual Cold Wars, p. 135.

  17. 17.

    Stonor Saunders, Who paid the piper?, p. 129.

  18. 18.

    “Conférences et débats,” Preuves 16 (June 1952): 40–43; “Les Entretiens de l’Œuvre du XXe siècle”, Preuves 18–19 (August–September 1952): 71–82.

  19. 19.

    Thomas Braden, “I am Glad the CIA is Immoral”, Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967.

  20. 20.

    Berghahn, America and the intellectual Cold Wars, p. 174. On the reception of the event by French intellectuals, see: “La Presse Française et ‘l’Œuvre du XXe siècle’,” Preuves 16 (June 1952): 48–58; Berghahn, America and the intellectual Cold Wars, pp. 135–136; Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 264–267.

  21. 21.

    Straw, “Two Kinds of Scenes”, p. 4.

  22. 22.

    Complete list includes the Wiener Staatsoper Chor, the Grand Ballet du Marquis de Cuevas, the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, the Orchestre National et Choeurs de la Radiodiffusion Française and the Accademia Nationale di Santa Cecilia.

  23. 23.

    For the complete program, see: Mark Carroll, Music and Ideology, Appendix, pp. 177–185.

  24. 24.

    See Giroud: Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 259–260; Carroll, Music and Ideology in Cold War Europe, Chapter I: 8–24.

  25. 25.

    Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 236.

  26. 26.

    For complete program, see Carroll, Music and Ideology in Cold War Europe, Chapter I, pp. 8–24.

  27. 27.

    This journal was set up in 1920 by the French musicologist Henry Prunières to promote New Music.

  28. 28.

    English version: “Possibly…” in Stocktakings from an Apprentices (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 111–140.

  29. 29.

    Stocktakings from an Apprentices, p. 113.

  30. 30.

    “Pour se rendre compte de ce qu’est réellement ce que l’on nomme ‘renouveau musical italien’, il faut connaître la vie musicale italienne entre 1800 et 1850,” Francesco Malipiero, “Le renouveau musical italien,” La Revue Musicale 212, special issue “L’Œuvre du XX e siècle” (April 1952): 27.

  31. 31.

    “Au moment de la capitulation de l’Etat nazi, il se trouva, parmi les nouveaux dirigeants des puissances occupantes, quelques têtes intelligentes qui comprirent immédiatement que, pour gagner les Allemands, il fallait les prendre par le biais de la culture. Dans l’assaut d’émulation entre les quatre puissances alliées, les Français furent incontestablement vainqueurs. On eut mille fois raison d’introduire en Allemagne la musique française, à côté du théâtre de France—la musique française, dont les musiciens allemands avaient, depuis des dizaines d’années, la puissante nostalgie,” Heinrich Strobel, “La musique nouvelle en Allemagne”: 24.

  32. 32.

    “la consternante mystique érotique de Messiaen”, in Strobel, “La musique nouvelle en Allemagne”: 24. It has however to be recalled that Strobel had programed the German premiere of the Turangalîla-Symphonie (which eroticism had been actually vigorously criticized by the press) during the concerts season of the Südwestfunk a year earlier and invited the composer to perform Harawi for the first time in Germany, with Gabrielle Dumaine, at Donaueschingen Festival, in October 1961.

  33. 33.

    “Musique coruscante, où le clinquant le dispute au tapageur,” Hell, “L’Esprit de la musique française”: 14 (author’s translation).

  34. 34.

    Author’s translation of: “Le plus combatif et le plus jeune d’entre eux, Pierre Boulez, personnalité remarquable, sera peut-être le grand musicien de demain, si toutefois le caractère mathématique de la musique ne l’emporte pas chez lui sur le côté purement sonore,” Hell, “L’Esprit de la musique française.”

  35. 35.

    For details of Nabokov ’s approaches, see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 281–283.

  36. 36.

    According to Fred Goldbeck in the chapeau of “La Musique du XXe siècle est-elle contemporaine?” (Preuves 38 (April 1954): 81–82), this Conference was organized by the European Center of Culture, with the collaboration of the CCF and the RAI.

  37. 37.

    Announced in Preuves 26 (April 1953): 91: “Après avoir présenté, avec “L’Œuvre du XXe siècle,” un bilan de la création musicale contemporaine, le Congrès pour la Liberté de la Culture entend désormais faire œuvre de pionnier en donnant des moyens d’expression et de réalisation à des artistes de la nouvelle génération. Un concours international de composition musicale aura lieu sous ses auspices à Rome, en avril 1954.”

  38. 38.

    Like, for instance the oversight of Jacques Ibert or Carl Nielsen (see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 282).

  39. 39.

    Nabokov, quoted by Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 282.

  40. 40.

    Carroll, Music and Ideology, p. 167.

  41. 41.

    For details, see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 285.

  42. 42.

    For broader information about this program, see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 282.

  43. 43.

    Yves Baudrier, Conrad Beck, Bernd Bergel, Peter Racine Fricker, Camargo Guarnieri, Lou Harrison, Giselher Klebe, Jean-Louis Martinet, Mario Peragallo, Camillo Togni, Wladimir Vogel, Ben Weber (Giroud: 283–284). Jury members were: Paul Collaer, Aaron Copland, Roland-Manuel, Rollo H. Myers, Geoffredo Petrassi, Robert Soetens and Heinrich Strobel (Fred Goldbeck, “Le concours international de Rome,” Preuves 39 (May 1954): 102. The committee that ran the pre-selection was chaired by Igor Stravinsky and comprised: Samuel Barber, Boris Blacher, Benjamin Britten, Carlos Chavez, Luigi Dallapiccola, Arthur Honegger, Francesco Malipiero, Frank Martin, Darius Milhaud and Virgil Thomson.

  44. 44.

    Author’s translation of: “Et il se trouve que le concerto de violon, les deux ouvertures et les deux œuvres de musique de chambre récompensées sont toutes d’écriture dodécaphonique—et cela bien que parmi les juges aucun ne soit que l’on sache particulièrement prévenu en faveur de cette technique (ou esthétique)”, Goldbeck, “La Musique du XXe siècle à Rome,” Preuves 40, June 1954: 78.

  45. 45.

    Author’s translation of: “La technique (ou esthétique) dodécaphoniste–ou le genre sériel, dont elle est une espèce–n’est pas, comme le prétendent partisans et adversaires, une sorte d’exclusif mot d’ordre et de credo musical; mais, bien plus anodinement, une sorte de fil conducteur, de garde-fou ou de balancier offert à qui veut circuler et se reconnaître plus commodément dans le baroque et le mouvant imposé aujourd’hui aux compositeurs,” Goldbeck, “La Musique du XXe siècle à Rome”, p. 78.

  46. 46.

    He expressed the same feeling in two—also undated—letters to Goldbeck These three letters are held at the Médiathèque Gustav Mahler, Goldbeck files.

  47. 47.

    Carroll, Music and Ideology, p. 171.

  48. 48.

    Pierre Boulez, “Current Investigations,” Stocktakings from an Apprenticeship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 15–19.

  49. 49.

    According to Saunders (Who paid the Piper?: 233), but Giroud said: “their falling out turned to be brief” (Nicolas Nabokov: 286).

  50. 50.

    Following Will Straw defining a “restricted scene” by “the people, practices and objects which surround a particular cultural object or domain,” in “Two Kinds of Scenes”, p. 3.

  51. 51.

    Starting only from the issue 47 of January 1955 onward.

  52. 52.

    Preuves 38 (April 1954): 81–82, published version of Goldbeck ’s lecture “L’esthétique et la technique” at Rome International Conference.

  53. 53.

    Preuves 38: 81.

  54. 54.

    Without naming him, Goldbeck described “the trendiest musician of the moment” whose “works’s catalogue is a remarkable continuation of recherches du temps perdu and dialogues with the fate of western music, from the tribute to the ancient Russia’s folklore to the tribute to Webern…”/“le musicien aujourd’hui le plus en vue; le catalogue de ses œuvres est une suite exemplaire de recherches du temps perdu et de dialogues avec le destin de la musique occidentale, depuis l’hommage au folklore de la Russie ancienne jusqu’à l’hommage à Webern,” Preuves 38: 81 (author’s translation).

  55. 55.

    Author’s translation of: “La différence est plutôt dans le degré de violence du dialogue. Là où un Britten s’entretient à bâtons rompus mais somme toute assez débonnairement avec Verdi, Purcell, et les élizabéthains, un Boulez s’en prend tête baissée à la sonate beethovenienne ou fracasse jusqu’à les pulvériser les canons-miroirs de l’Art de la Fugue,” Preuves 38: 82.

  56. 56.

    Goldbeck, “Lettre à l’auteur d’un livre qui pourrait être utile,” Preuves 46 (December 1954): 66 (author’s translation).

  57. 57.

    Goldbeck, “Benjamin Britten,” Preuves 66 (August 1956): 86–87.

  58. 58.

    Goldbeck, “Le Cantique de Saint-Marc de Stravinsky,” Preuves 69 (November 1966): 90–91: “Maintenant, tout dogmatisme en matière de modernité musicale est ébranlé”, p. 91 (author’s translation).

  59. 59.

    For the political connections, see also Carroll, Music and Ideology, p. 173.

  60. 60.

    Author’s translation of a letter of F. Goldbeck to H. Strobel, April 30, 1955 (Südwestfunk Archives, Baden-Baden). For details, see Barthel-Calvet, “Metastasis, ‘opus 1’ de Xenakis,” p. 263.

  61. 61.

    Letters between Xenakis and Nabokov, March 12, 1963, October 3, 1963, s.d. after Berlin’s residence (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin).

  62. 62.

    Letter of Xenakis to Nabokov, January 19, 1971 (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center).

  63. 63.

    Compared with Mark Ferraguto’s chapter in this volume (Chap. 3) that focuses on official diplomats, this chapter analyzes how a non-governmental diplomatic platform financed by a governmental organization shapes musical scenes in Europe.

  64. 64.

    Serge Rezvani, “L’autre Iran”, Le Monde, November 24, 1971; Iannis Xenakis, “Correspondance”, Le Monde, December 14, 1971 (reprinted in Iannis Xenakis, Musique de l’Architecture, Marseilles: Parenthèses, 2006, pp. 312–313); open letter of Xenakis to Farouk Gaffary, February 10, 1976 (Médiathèque Gustav Mahler, files Fleuret).

  65. 65.

    Letter from Xenakis to Nabokov, February 10, 1970 (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center).

  66. 66.

    For details, see Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 341.

  67. 67.

    Nabokov, Bagázh: Memoirs of a Russian Cosmopolitan (New York: Atheneum, 1975), p. 255, quoted by Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 341.

  68. 68.

    Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 340. Nabokov remained however Secretary General of the CCF.

  69. 69.

    Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 343–362.

  70. 70.

    For another conception of Music Festivals in Europe and the role of Russia, see Chap. 11 in this volume, by Emilija Pundziūtė-Gallois.

  71. 71.

    Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 355–356.

  72. 72.

    Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 344.

  73. 73.

    Becoming the International Institute for Traditional music in 1991, this institution was supported by the Berlin Senate for Cultural Affairs until 1996, when it was dissolved.

  74. 74.

    UNESCO was represented by Jack Bornoff, setting at the board with musicians and musicologists as Boris Blacher, Yehudi Menuhin, Paul Collaer and Hans-Heinz Stuckenschmidt (Giroud, Nicolas Nabokov, p. 347).

  75. 75.

    For further details, see Giroud Nicolas Nabokov, pp. 346–347.

  76. 76.

    Straw, “Two Kinds of Scenes,” pp. 2–3.

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  1. CRUH, Université de Lorraine, Nancy-Metz, France

    Anne-Sylvie Barthel-Calvet

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  1. Center for International Studies (CERI), Sciences Po, Paris, France

    Frédéric Ramel

  2. Université Sorbonne Nouvelle – Paris 3, Paris, France

    Cécile Prévost-Thomas

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Barthel-Calvet, AS. (2018). Targeting New Music in Postwar Europe: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Crafting of Art Music Avant-Garde Scenes. In: Ramel, F., Prévost-Thomas, C. (eds) International Relations, Music and Diplomacy . The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63163-9_4

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