Abstract
Chapter 19 argues that the events of 2016, especially Brexit, the crisis of confidence around regional integration in Europe, the controversial economic partnership agreements (EPAs), the cutting of EU funding to the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), and the clamping down on African immigrants in the Mediterranean, are likely to have serious repercussions on what seems to be a fading relationship between Europe and Africa. Another issue of consternation is Europe’s introduction of migration control as a new condition for development cooperation following the refugee crisis.
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Notes
- 1.
Geert Laporte, A. Sherriff, V. Hauck, and S. Bilal, “Brexit: First Post-Referendum Thoughts”, European Centre for Development Policy Management, Talking Points Blog, 1 July 2016, http://ecdpm.org/talking-points/brexit-first-post-referendum-thoughts/
- 2.
Benjamin William Mkapa, “East Africa: Economic Partnership Agreement Has Never Made Much Sense for Tanzania”, Daily News, 27 July 2016, http://www.africapulse.com/2016/07/28/east-africa-economic-partnership-agreement-has-never-made-much-sense-for-tanzania/
- 3.
Gilbert M. Khadiagala, “Africa and Europe: Ending a Dialogue of the Deaf”, in Adekeye Adebajo and Kaye Whiteman (eds), The EU and Africa: From Eurafrique to Afro-Europa (London: Hurst, 2012), pp. 217–36; Gilbert M. Khadiagala, “The Evolution of Euro-African Relations”, in Terrence Lyons and Khadiagala (eds), Conflict Management and African Politics: Ripeness, Bargaining, and Mediation (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 67–82.
- 4.
Gilbert M. Khadiagala, “Euro-African Relations in the Age of Maturity”, in John W. Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in World Politics: Reforming Political Order (Boulder: Westview, 2008), pp. 305–22.
- 5.
For excellent discussions of issues of partnership see various chapters, in Adekeye Adebajo and Kaye Whiteman (eds), The EU and Africa: From Eurafrique to Afro-Europa (London: Hurst, 2012).
- 6.
Dirk Konhert, “African Agency and the EU-Africa Economic Partnership Agreements”, Africa Spectrum 49, no. 3 (2014), pp. 149–55; Andry Storey, “Normative Power Europe? Economic Partnership Agreements in Africa”, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 24(3) (2016), pp. 331–46.
- 7.
For various analyses of EPA negotiations see Steve MacDonald, Stephen Lande, and Dennis Matanda, “Why Economic Partnership Agreements Undermine Africa’s Integration”, Woodrow Wilson Centre, Africa Programme (3 May 2013), https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/why-economic-partnership-agreements-undermine-africas-regional-integration; “Mbeki Slams EPAs with EU as Unfair and Unbalanced”, The Citizen, 8 October 2015, http://citizen.co.za/news/news-national/807328/mbeki-slams-epas-with-eu-as-unfair-and-unbalanced; and Merran Hulse, “Economic Partnership Agreements: Implications for Regional Governance and EU-ACP Relations”, German Development Institute, Briefing Paper no. 12 (2016).
- 8.
Sir Ronald Sanders, “The European Union, Economic Partnership Agreements, and Africa”, Round Table 104, no. 5 (2015), pp. 563–71.
- 9.
Southern African Development Community, “EU-SADC EPA Signed on 10 June 2016, https://www.sadc.int/news-events/news/eu-sadc-economic-partnership-agreement-epa-signed/
- 10.
On the three agreements, see European Commission, “EPA between the EU and SADC” (June 2016); European Commission, “EPA between the EU and ECOWAS” (March 2016); European Commission, “EPA between the EU and EAC” (June 2016), https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/nigeria/6656/economic-partnership-agreements-between-european-union-and-east-african-community_en
- 11.
AU and EU, “The Africa-EU Strategic Partnership: A Joint Africa-EU Strategy”, 2007, http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/regions/africa/continental-cooperation/joint-africa-eu-strategy_en
- 12.
See European Commission, “Joint Africa-EU Strategy”, http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/regions/africa/continental-cooperation/joint-africa-eu-strategy_en
- 13.
Matthias Deneckere and Anna Knoll, “The Future of EU Support to Peace and Security in Africa: What Implications for the African Peace Facility Beyond 2020?”, ECDPM (2016), http://ecdpm.org/publications/future-eu-support-peace-security-africa/
- 14.
See Council of the European Union, “Amendment no. 2 to the Three Year Action Programme for the African Peace Facility, 2011–2013”, (tenth EDF) (10 April 2013), http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-13575-2016-INIT/en/pdf
- 15.
Weinrich Kuhne, “How the EU Organizes and Conducts Peace Operations in Africa, EUFOR/MINURCAT”, Centre for International Peace Operations, Series Title no. 3 (March 2009), http://www.zif-berlin.org/fileadmin/uploads/analyse/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/EUFOR_Tchad__RCA_final_03_09.pdf. See also Meiker Frotzheim, Fredrik Söderbaum, and Ian Taylor, “The Limits of the EU as a Peace and Security Actor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)”, Africa Spectrum, 3 (2011), pp. 45–70.
- 16.
T. Tardy, “The EU and Africa: A Changing Security Partnership”, European Union Institute for Security Studies (5 February 2016), http://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/detail/article/the-eu-and-africa-a-changing-security-partnership/
- 17.
European Union External Action, “Election Observation Missions, https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en
- 18.
Open Society Foundations, EU-AU Relations: The Partnership on Democratic Governance and Human Rights of the Joint EU-AU Strategy, https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/eu-au-relations-20100708.pdf
- 19.
EU, “The African-EU Partnership: Key Figures and Achievements”, http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/en/about-us/about-us/key-figures-and-achievements. See also European Union, “Inside the EU-Africa Partnership”, no. 16 (April–July 2016), pp. 8–20.
- 20.
EU, “The African-EU Partnership”.
- 21.
EU, “Pan-African Programme, 2014–2020: Multiannual Indicative Programme 2014–2017” (August 2014), https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/mip-pan-african-programme-2014-2017_en.pdf
- 22.
Anna Knoll and Frauke de Weijer, “Understanding African and European Perspectives on Migration: Toward a Better Partnership for Regional Governance?”, ECDPM (November 2016), http://ecdpm.org/publications/understanding-african-european-perspectives-migration/
- 23.
European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the State of Play of Implementation of the Priority Actions under the European Agenda on Migration”, 10 February 2016, https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-85-EN-F1-1.PDF
- 24.
European Commission, “Communication to the Commission of the European Parliament, The European Council, the Council, and European Investment Bank on Establishing a New Partnership with Framework with Third Countries under the European Agenda on Migration”, 7 June 2016, https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-385-EN-F1-1.PDF
- 25.
Rebecca Rosman, “Africa: Will EU-Africa Aid Deal Depend on Curbing Migration?” All Africa, 9 June 2016, http://allafrica.com/stories/201606091050.html; Kristy Siegfried, “Africa: Five False Assumptions Driving EU Migration Policy”, IRIN, 2 June 2015, http://www.irinnews.org/analysis/2015/06/02/five-false-assumptions-driving-eu-migration-policy
- 26.
EU, “The African-EU Partnership”.
- 27.
“Africa: EU-Africa Summit Focuses On Trade and Conflicts, Not Least in CAR”, Deutsche Welle (3 April 2014), https://abibitumikasa.com/forums/showthread.php/100840-Africa-EU-Africa-Summit-Focuses-On-Trade-and-Conflicts-Not-Least-in-CAR; and European Council, “EU-Africa Summit”, Brussels, April 2014, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/international-summit/2014/04/02-03/
- 28.
Tichaona Sibanda, “Africa: Mugabe’s Boycott of EU/AU Summit ‘Insignificant,’” Allafrica.com , 2 April 2014, http://allafrica.com/stories/201404030252.html
- 29.
“Africa: EU and Africa Wrap Two-Day Summit”, Deutsche Welle (3 April 2014), http://www.dw.com/en/eu-and-africa-wrap-up-two-day-summit/a-17542602
- 30.
Jean Bossuyt, Camilla Rocca, and Brecht in,“Political Dialogue on Human Rights under Article 8 of the Cotonou Agreement”, policy brief, ECDPM (March 2014), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/deve/dv/study_political_dialogue_/study_political_dialogue_en.pdf
- 31.
Vera Songwe, “Africa and the New European Parliament: How Much Change Can We Expect?”, All Africa, 30 June 2014, http://allafrica.com/stories/201407021163.html
- 32.
European Commission, “Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe—A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy” (June 2016), http://www.eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/top_stories/pdf/eugs_review_web.pdf, p. 13. See also Valeria Pintus, Nina Thijssen, and Franz Ferdinand Rothe, “Eight Notable Moments for Europe and Africa: Looking Back at 2016 and Ahead to 2017”, ECDPM (13 January, 2017), http://ecdpm.org/talking-points/eight-notablemoments-europe-africa-2016-2017
- 33.
For analyses of African challenges, see Charles Abugre and Atieno Ndomo, “Structural Transformation and the Challenge of Financing Post-2015 Development Agenda”, UNECA (2016), http://www.endpoverty2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/africapost2015.pdf; and Charles Abugre and Atieno Ndomo, “The Future of ACP-EU Relations: What Role for the African Union”, Bulletin of the Fridays of the Commission, newsletter 7 (December 2015), http://ecdpm.org/wp-content/uploads/Bulletin-Fridays-Commission-December-2015.pdf
- 34.
James Mackie, Matthias Deneckere, and Gerta Galeazzi, “Matching Means to Priorities: Challenges for EU-Africa Relations in 2017”, ECDPM, no. 8 (January 2017).
- 35.
Mackie, Matthias, and Galeazzi, “Matching Means to Priorities”.
- 36.
For wide-ranging accounts of the Brexit implications for Africa, see Amadou Sy and Mariama Sow, “The Brexit: What Implications for Africa?”, Brookings Africa in Focus Report (21 June 2016), https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2016/06/21/the-brexit-what-implications-for-africa; see Neuma Grobbelaar and Elizabeth Sidiropoulos, “Uncharted Territory As the UK Opts to Exit the European Union”, policy brief, Southern African Institute of International Affairs (24 June 2016); Peter Fabricius, “Fog in the Tunnel: What Brexit Means for Africa”, Institute for Security Studies Today (23 June 2016); Seedwel Hove and Jeffrey Wakeford, “Potential Implications of Brexit for African Economies”, Quantum Global Research Lab no. 2 (July 2016); and Nefta Freeman, “Brexit: A Nail in the Coffin of Neo-Colonialism in Africa”, Institute for Policy Studies (29 June 2016).
- 37.
Sy and Sow, “The Brexit: What Implications for Africa”.
- 38.
Raymond Parsons, cited in Mike Cohen and Arabile Gumede, “What Should Africa Expect of Brexit?”, The Star, 28 June 2016, http://www.iol.co.za/business-report/economy/what-should-africa-expect-after-brexit-2039253. See also Alex Barker, “Brexit: The World’s Most Complex Divorce Begins”, Financial Times, 24 June 2016.
- 39.
For some future trade scenarios see Tralac, “Some Implications of Brexit for UK-Africa Relations” (15 July 2016), https://www.tralac.org/news/article/10089-some-implications-of-brexit-for-uk-african-relations.html
- 40.
Mackie, Matthias, and Galeazzi, “Matching Means to Priorities”, p. 3.
- 41.
“Tanzania Backs Out of EAC Deal with EU over Brexit”, Daily Nation, 19 July 2016; Christabel Ligami, “Dar’s New Demand on EPA Leaves Trade Deal in Limbo”, The East African, 18–24 February 2017 and 18 July 2016; James Anyanzwa, “African Blocs Fail to Agree on Free Trade Area”, The East African, 16 July 2016.
- 42.
Stephen Lande and Dennis Matande, “Africa: The Economic Partnership Agreement—A Case of Unfortunate Timing?” (13 July 2016), http://allafrica.com/stories/201607131066.html
- 43.
Lande and Matande, “Africa: The Economic Partnership Agreement”. For similar views see Horace G. Campbell, “Why East Africa should reject EPA deal with Europe”, Pambazuka News, 13 October 2016, https://www.pambazuka.org/global-south/why-east-africa-should-reject-epa-deal-europe
- 44.
Cited in Richard Calland and Nathan Dufour, “Africa Must Plan Response to Europe’s Break-Up Tsunami”, Business Day, 15 July 2016.
- 45.
African Union, Audit of the African Union. Addis Ababa. AU, 2007, http://osf.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Audit-of-the-African-Union-Report-of-the-High-Level-Panel.pdf
- 46.
Paul Kagame, “The Imperative to Strengthen Our Union: Report of the Proposed Recommendations for the Institutional Reform of the African Union” (29 January 2017), http://www.gsdpp.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/78/News/FInal%20AU%20Reform%20Combined%20report_28012017.pdf, p. 11.
- 47.
Kagame, “The Imperative to Strengthen Our Union”, p. 24.
- 48.
Kagame, “The Imperative to Strengthen Our Union”, p. 4.
- 49.
UNECA, “African Migrants: Payback Time?” (31 August 2006), http://www.uneca.org/es-blog/african-migrants-payback-time
- 50.
Wachira Maina, “Four Lessons from Brexit and EU Fallout for East Africa”, The East African ( 2 July 2016), http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/OpEd/comment/Four-lessons-from-Brexit-and-EU-fallout-for--East-Africa/-/434750/3277224/-/15dpdom/-/index.html
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Khadiagala, G.M. (2018). Europe-African Relations in the Era of Uncertainty. In: Nagar, D., Mutasa, C. (eds) Africa and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62590-4_19
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