Abstract
Electronic waste, termed interchangeably as e-waste and/or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), is the fastest-growing segment of solid waste. The global electronic waste generation has reached 42 million tons in 2014, and is expected to reach 50 million tons in 2020. In addition to being a hazardous waste type, WEEE also includes relatively high concentrations of metals. Modern devices contain up to 60 different elements at various concentrations, encompassing base metals, critical metals, and platinum group metals mixed in a complex matrix of metallic and non-metallic materials. The emergence of numerous new electronic products and occurrence of complex metal mixtures make this waste stream an important secondary source of metals. Improper and informal end-of-life (EoL) processing of electronic waste has detrimental consequences on the environment and public health. Microbial processing of metals from their primary ores is an established technology with many full-scale applications. Bioprocessing of waste materials for metal recovery, on the other hand, is an emerging and promising technology with low environmental impact and high cost-effectiveness. This chapter overviews bioprocessing of electronic waste as a secondary source of metals to recover metals. Additionally, biologically-driven metal extraction technologies, (e.g. bioleaching) and metal recovery techniques (e.g. biomineralisation) are reviewed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Acevedo F (2000) The use of reactors in biomining processes. Electron J Biotechnol 3:184–194. doi:10.2225/vol3-issue3-fulltext-4
Acuna J, Rojas J, Amaro AM, Toledo H, Jerez CA (1992) Chemotaxis of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans and other acidophilic chemolithotrophs: comparison with the Escherichia coli chemosensory system. FEMS Microbiol Lett 96(1):37–42
Andrès Y, Gérente C (2011) Removal of rare earth elements and precious metal species by biosorption. In: Kotrba P, Mackova M, Macek T (eds) Microbial biosorption of metals. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 179–196
Arundel A, Sawaya D (2009) The bioeconomy to 2030: Designing a policy agenda. OECD - Better Policies for Better Lives. http://www.oecd.org/futures/long-termtechnologicalsocietalchallenges/thebioeconomyto2030designingapolicyagenda.htm
Auernik KS, Maezato Y, Blum PH, Kelly RM (2008) The genome sequence of the metal-mobilizing, extremely thermoacidophilic archaeon Metallosphaera sedula provides insights into bioleaching-associated metabolism. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:682–692. doi:10.1128/AEM.02019-07
Bakker PAHM, CMJ P, van Loon LC (2007) Induced systemic resistance by fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. Phytopathology 97:239–243. doi:10.1094/PHYTO-97-2-0239
Baldé CP, Wang F, Kuehr R, Huisman J (2015) The global E-waste monitor 2014: quantities, flows, and resources. United Nations University, Bonn
Bas AD, Deveci H, Yazici EY (2013) Bioleaching of copper from low grade scrap TV circuit boards using mesophilic bacteria. Hydrometallurgy 138:65–70. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2013.06.015
Bharadwaj A, Ting YP (2012) From biomining of mineral ores to bio urban mining of industrial waste. Environmental Technology and Management Conference, 4th, EMTC, Indonesia
Blumer C, Haas D (2000) Mechanism, regulation, and ecological role of bacterial cyanide biosynthesis. Arch Microbiol 173:170–177
Bonnefoy V, Holmes DS (2012) Genomic insights into microbial iron oxidation and iron uptake strategies in extremely acidic environments. Environ Microbiol 14:1597–1611. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02626.x
Bosecker K (1997) Bioleaching: metal solubilization by microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Rev 20:591–604. doi:10.1016/S0168-6445(97)00036-3
Brandl H (2008) Microbial leaching of metals. In: Biotechnology set, 2nd edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, pp 191–224
Brandl H, Faramarzi M (2006) Microbe-metal-interactions for the biotechnological treatment of metal-containing solid waste. China Particuology 4:93–97. doi:10.1016/S1672-2515(07)60244-9
Brandl H, Bosshard R, Wegmann M (2001) Computer-munching microbes: metal leaching from electronic scrap by bacteria and fungi. Hydrometallurgy 59:319–326. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(00)00188-2
Brandl H, Lehmann S, Faramarzi MA, Martinelli D (2008) Biomobilization of silver, gold, and platinum from solid waste materials by HCN-forming microorganisms. Hydrometallurgy 94:14–17. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.05.016
Brasseur G, Levican G, Bonnefoy V, Holmes D, Jedlicki E, Lemesle-Meunier D (2004) Apparent redundancy of electron transfer pathways via bc1 complexes and terminal oxidases in the extremophilic chemolithoautotrophic Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. Biochim Biophys Acta – Bioenerg 1656:114–126. doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2004.02.008
Brierley JA, Brierley CL (1986) Microbial mining using thermophilic microorganisms. In: Brock TD (ed) Thermophiles: general, molecular, and applied microbiology. Wiley, New York, pp 279–305
Brierley J, Brierley C (2001) Present and future commercial applications of biohydrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy 59:233–239. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(00)00162-6
Brierley CL, Brierley JA (2013) Progress in bioleaching: Part B: applications of microbial processes by the minerals industries. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:7543–7552. doi:10.1007/s00253-013-5095-3
Bryan CG, Watkin EL, McCredden TJ, Wong ZR, Harrison STL, Kaksonen AH (2015) The use of pyrite as a source of lixiviant in the bioleaching of electronic waste. Hydrometallurgy 152:33–43. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.12.004
Campbell SC, Olson GJ, Clark TR, McFeters G (2001) Biogenic production of cyanide and its application to gold recovery. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 26:134–139. doi:10.1038/sj.jim.7000104
Canovas D, Cases I, de Lorenzo V (2003) Heavy metal tolerance and metal homeostasis in Pseudomonas putida as revealed by complete genome analysis. Environ Microbiol 5:1242–1256. doi:10.1046/j.1462-2920.2003.00463.x
Cao J, Zhang G, Mao Z, Wu P, Dang Z, Li P, Wu J (2009) Precipitation of valuable metals from bioleaching solution by biogenic sulfides. Miner Eng 22:289–295. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2008.08.006
Castric PA (1977) Glycine metabolism by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: hydrogen cyanide biosynthesis. J Bacteriol 130:826–831
Chen SY, Huang QY (2014) Heavy metals recovery from printed circuit board industry wastewater sludge by thermophilic bioleaching process. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 89:158–164. doi:10.1002/jctb.4129
Chen LX, Hu M, Huang LN, Hua ZS, Kuang JL, Li SJ, Shu WS (2015) Comparative metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analyses of microbial communities in acid mine drainage. ISME J 9(7):1579–1592. doi:10.1038/ismej.2014.245
Clark DA, Norris PR (1996) Acidimicrobium ferrooxidans gen nov, sp nov: mixed-culture ferrous iron oxidation with Sulfobacillus species. Microbiology 142:785–790. doi:10.1099/00221287-142-4-785
Colmer AR, Hinkle ME (1947) The role of microorganisms in acid mine drainage: a preliminary report. Science 106:253–256. doi:10.1126/science.106.2751.253
Corstjens PLAM, De Vrind JPM, Westbroek P, De Vrind-De Jong EW (1992) Enzymatic iron oxidation by Leptothrix discophora: identification of an iron-oxidizing protein. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:450–454
Creamer NJ, Baxter-Plant VS, Henderson J, Potter M, Macaskie LE (2006) Palladium and gold removal and recovery from precious metal solutions and electronic scrap leachates by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Biotechnol Lett 28:1475–1484. doi:10.1007/s10529-006-9120-9
Cui J, Zhang L (2008) Metallurgical recovery of metals from electronic waste: a review. J Hazard Mater 158:228–256. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.02.001
Darland G, Brock TD, Samsonoff W, Conti SF (1970) A thermophilic, acidophilic mycoplasma isolated from a coal refuse pile. Science 170:1416–1418. doi:10.1126/science.170.3965.1416
Darnall DW, Greene B, Henzl MT, Hosea JM, McPherson RA, Sneddon J, Dale AM (1986) Selective recovery of gold and other metal ions from an algal biomass. Environ Sci Technol 20:206–208
Das N (2010) Recovery of precious metals through biosorption – a review. Hydrometallurgy 103:180–189. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2010.03.016
de Vargas I, Macaskie LE, Guibal E (2004) Biosorption of palladium and platinum by sulfate-reducing bacteria. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 79:49–56
Del Olmo A, Caramelo C, San Jose C (2003) Fluorescent complex of pyoverdin with aluminum. J Inorg Biochem 97:384–387. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(03)00316-7
Deng X, Chai L, Yang Z, Tang C, Wang Y, Shi Y (2013) Bioleaching mechanism of heavy metals in the mixture of contaminated soil and slag by using indigenous Penicillium chrysogenum strain F1. J Hazard Mater 248–249:107–114. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.12.051
Deplanche K, Macaskie LE (2008) Biorecovery of gold by Escherichia coli and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Biotechnol Bioeng 99:1055–1064. doi:10.1002/bit.21688
Deplanche K, Murray A, Mennan C, Scott T, Macaskie L (2011) Biorecycling of precious metals and rare earth elements. InTech, Nanomaterials:279–315. Doi:https://doi.org/10.5772/25653
Donati ER, Sand W (2007) Microbial processing of metal sulfides. Springer, Dordrecht
Du Plessis CA, Batty JD, Dew DW (2007) Commercial applications of thermophile bioleaching. Biomining:57–80. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-34911-2_3
Edwards KJ, Bond PL, Gihring TM, Banfield JF (2000) An archaeal iron-oxidizing extreme acidophile important in acid mine drainage. Science 287:1796–1799. doi:10.1126/science.287.5459.1796
Escobar B, Jedlicki E, Wiertz J, Vargas T (1996) A method for evaluating the proportion of free and attached bacteria in the bioleaching of chalcopyrite with Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Hydrometallurgy 40:1–10. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00005-2
Essa A, Creamer N, Brown N, Macaskie L (2006) A new approach to the remediation of heavy metal liquid wastes via off-gases produced by Klebsiella pneumoniae M426. Biotechnol Bioeng 95:574–583. doi:10.1002/bit.20877
Fabisch M, Beulig F, Akob DM, Küsel K (2013) Surprising abundance of Gallionella-related iron oxidizers in creek sediments at pH 4.4 or at high heavy metal concentrations. Front Microbiol 4:1–12. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2013.00390
Fairbrother L, Shapter J, Brugger J, Southam G, Pring A, Reith F (2009) Effect of the cyanide-producing bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum on ultraflat Au surfaces. Chem Geol 265:313–320. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.04.010
Faramarzi M, Stagars M, Pensini E (2004) Metal solubilization from metal-containing solid materials by cyanogenic Chromobacterium violaceum. J Biotechnol 113:321–326. doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2004.03.031
Foulkes JM, Deplanche K, Sargent F, Macaskie LE, Lloyd JR (2016) A novel aerobic mechanism for reductive palladium biomineralization and recovery by Escherichia coli. Geomicrobiol J 33:230–236. doi:10.1080/01490451.2015.1069911
Fu F, Wang Q (2011) Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: a review. J Environ Manag 92:407–418. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.011
Fuchs T, Huber H, Teiner K, Burggraf S, Stetter KO (1995) Metallosphaera prunae, sp. nov., a novel metal-mobilizing, thermoacidophilic Archaeum, isolated from a uranium mine in Germany. Syst Appl Microbiol 18:560–566. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(11)80416-9
Gadd GM (2000) Bioremedial potential of microbial mechanisms of metal mobilization and immobilization. Curr Opin Biotechnol 11(3):271–279
Gadd GM (2010) Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation. Microbiology 156:609–643. doi:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0
Gadd SA, Joffe JS (1922) Microörganisms concerned in the oxidation of sulfur in the soil. J Bacteriol 7:239–256. doi:10.1097/00010694-192205000-00002.
Ghauri MA, Okibe N, Johnson DB (2007) Attachment of acidophilic bacteria to solid surfaces: the significance of species and strain variations. Hydrometallurgy 85:72–80. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.03.016
Golovacheva RS, Karavaiko GI (1978) New genus of thermophilic spore-forming bacteria, Sulfobacillus. Microbiology 47(5):658–665
Golyshina OV, Pivovarova TA, Karavaiko GI, Kondrat'eva TF, Moore ERB, Abraham WR, Lünsdorf H, Timmis KN, Yakimov MM, Golyshin PN (2000) Ferroplasma acidiphilum gen. nov., sp. nov., an acidophilic, autotrophic, ferrous-iron-oxidizing, cell-wall-lacking, mesophilic member of the Ferroplasmaceae fam. nov., comprising a distinct lineage of the Archaea. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 50:997–1006. doi:10.1099/00207713-50-3-997
González-Muñoz MJ, Rodríguez MA, Luque S, Álvarez JR (2006) Recovery of heavy metals from metal industry waste waters by chemical precipitation and nanofiltration. Desalination 200:742–744. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.498
Habashi F (2005) A short history of hydrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy 79:15–22. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2004.01.008
Hadi P, Xu M, Lin CSK, Hui CW, McKay G (2015) Waste printed circuit board recycling techniques and product utilization. J Hazard Mater 283:234–243. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.09.032
Hawkes RB, Franzmann PD, O’hara G, Plumb JJ (2006) Ferroplasma cupricumulans sp. nov., a novel moderately thermophilic, acidophilic Archaeon isolated from an industrial-scale chalcocite bioleach heap. Extremophiles 10:525–530. doi:10.1007/s00792-006-0527-y
Hedrich S, Johnson DB (2013) Aerobic and anaerobic oxidation of hydrogen by acidophilic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Lett 349:40–45. doi:10.1111/1574-6968.12290
Hedrich S, Schlömann M, Johnson DB (2011) The iron-oxidizing proteobacteria. Microbiology 157:1551–1564. doi:10.1099/mic.0.045344-0
Hennebel T, Boon N, Maes S, Lenz M (2015) Biotechnologies for critical raw material recovery from primary and secondary sources: R&D priorities and future perspectives. N Biotechnol 32:121–127. doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2013.08.004
Hong Y, Valix M (2014) Bioleaching of electronic waste using acidophilic sulfur oxidising bacteria. J Clean Prod 65:465–472. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.043
Huber G, Spinnler C, Gambacorta A, Stetter KO (1989) Metallosphaera sedula gen, and sp. nov. represents a new genus of aerobic, metal-mobilizing, thermoacidophilic archaebacteria. Syst Appl Microbiol 12:38–47. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(89)80038-4
Ilyas S, Lee JC (2014a) Biometallurgical recovery of metals from waste electrical and electronic equipment: a review. ChemBioEng Rev 1:148–169. doi:10.1002/cben.201400001
Ilyas S, Lee JC (2014b) Bioleaching of metals from electronic scrap in a stirred tank reactor. Hydrometallurgy 149:50–62. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.07.004
Ilyas S, Lee JC (2015) Bioprocessing of electronic scraps. In: Abhilash PBD, Natarajan KA (eds) Microbiology for minerals, metals, Materials and the environment. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 307–328. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18124-13
Ilyas S, Anwar MA, Niazi SB, Ghauri MA (2007) Bioleaching of metals from electronic scrap by moderately thermophilic acidophilic bacteria. Hydrometallurgy 88:180–188. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.04.007
Ilyas S, Ruan C, Bhatti HN, Ghauri MA, Anwar MA (2010) Column bioleaching of metals from electronic scrap. Hydrometallurgy 101:135–140. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2009.12.007
Ishigaki T, Nakanishi A, Tateda M, Ike M, Fujita M (2005) Bioleaching of metal from municipal waste incineration fly ash using a mixed culture of sulfur-oxidizing and iron-oxidizing bacteria. Chemosphere 60:1087–1094. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.12.060
Işildar A, van de Vossenberg J, Rene ER, van Hullebusch ED, Lens PNL (2016) Two-step bioleaching of copper and gold from discarded printed circuit boards (PCB). Waste Manag 57:149–157. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2015.11.033
Jan RL, Wu J, Chaw SM, Tsai CW, Tsen SD (1999) A novel species of thermoacidophilic archaeon, Sulfolobus yangmingensis sp. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 49(Pt 4):1809–1816. doi:10.1099/00207713-49-4-1809
Janyasuthiwong S, Rene ER, Esposito G, Lens PNL (2015) Effect of pH on Cu, Ni and Zn removal by biogenic sulfide precipitation in an inversed fluidized bed bioreactor. Hydrometallurgy 158:94–100. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.10.009
Johnson DB, Bacelar-Nicolau P, Okibe N, Thomas A, Hallberg KB (2009) Ferrimicrobium acidiphilum gen. nov., sp. nov. and Ferrithrix thermotolerans gen. nov., sp. nov.: heterotrophic, iron-oxidizing, extremely acidophilic actinobacteria. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 59:1082–1089. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.65409-0
Johnson DB, Hallberg KB (2003) The microbiology of acidic mine waters. Res Microbiol 154:466–473. doi:10.1016/S0923-2508(03)00114-1
Johnson DB, Du Plessis CA (2015) Biomining in reverse gear: using bacteria to extract metals from oxidised ores. Miner Eng 75:2–5. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2014.09.024
Johnston CW, Wyatt MA, Li X, Ibrahim A, Shuster J, Southam G, Magarvey N (2013) Gold biomineralization by a metallophore from a gold-associated microbe. Nat Chem Biol 9:241–243. doi:10.1038/nchembio.1179
Jong T, Parry DL (2003) Removal of sulfate and heavy metals by sulfate reducing bacteria in short-term bench scale upflow anaerobic packed bed reactor runs. Water Res 37:3379–3389. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00165-9
Kaksonen AH, Mudunuru BM, Hackl R (2014) The role of microorganisms in gold processing and recovery–a review. Hydrometallurgy 142:70–83. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2013.11.008
Karwowska E, Andrzejewska-Morzuch D, Łebkowska M, Tabernacka A, Wojtkowska M, Telepko A, Konarzewska A (2014) Bioleaching of metals from printed circuit boards supported with surfactant-producing bacteria. J Hazard Mater 264:203–210. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.11.018
Kashefi K, Tor JM, Nevin KP, Lovley DR (2001) Reductive precipitation of gold by dissimilatory Fe (III)-reducing bacteria and archaea. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3275–3279. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.7.3275
Kelly DP, Wood AP (2000) Reclassification of some species of Thiobacillus Acidithiobacillus gen. nov., Halothiobacillus gen. nov. and Thermithiobacillus gen. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 50:511–516
Khoo KM, Ting YP (2001) Biosorption of gold by immobilized fungal biomass. Biochem Eng J 8:51–59. doi:10.1016/S1369-703X(00)00134-0
Kimura S, Bryan CG, Hallberg KB, Johnson DB (2011) Biodiversity and geochemistry of an extremely acidic, low-temperature subterranean environment sustained by chemolithotrophy. Environ Microbiol 13:2092–2104. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02434.x
Knowles CJ (1976) Microorganisms and cyanide. Bacteriol Rev 40:652–680
Kozubal MA, Dlakić M, Macur RE, Inskeep WP (2011) Terminal oxidase diversity and function in “Metallosphaera yellowstonensis”: gene expression and protein modeling suggest mechanisms of Fe(II) oxidation in the Sulfolobales. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:1844–1853. doi:10.1128/AEM.01646-10
Kuyucak N, Volesky B (1988) Biosorbents for recovery of metals from industrial solutions. Biotechnol Lett 10:137–142. doi:10.1007/BF01024641
Lee J, Pandey B (2012) Bio-processing of solid wastes and secondary resources for metal extraction-a review. Waste Manag 32:3–18. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2011.08.010
Leff LG, Ghosh S, Johnston GP, Roberto A (2015) Microbial remediation of acid mine drainage. In: Abhilash PBD, Natarajan KA (eds) Microbiology for minerals, metals, materials and the environment. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 453–475. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18124-19
Lewis AE (2010) Review of metal sulphide precipitation. Hydrometallurgy 104:222–234. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2010.06.010
Li L, Hu Q, Zeng J, Qi H, Zhuang G (2011) Resistance and biosorption mechanism of silver ions by Bacillus cereus biomass. J Env Sci 23:108–111. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60380-4
Liang G, Mo Y, Zhou Q (2010) Novel strategies of bioleaching metals from printed circuit boards (PCBs) in mixed cultivation of two acidophiles. Enzyme Microb Technol 47:322–326. doi:10.1016/j.enzmictec.2010.08.002
Liang CJ, Li JY, Ma CJ (2014) Review on cyanogenic bacteria for gold recovery from E-waste. Adv Mater Res 878:355–367. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.878.355
Liu YG, Zhou M, Zeng GM, Li X, Xu WH, Fan T (2007) Effect of solids concentration on removal of heavy metals from mine tailings via bioleaching. J Hazard Mater 141:202–208. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.06.113
Mack C, Wilhelmi B, Duncan JR, Burgess JE (2007) Biosorption of precious metals. Biotechnol Adv 25:264–271. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.01.003
Mäkinen J, Bachér J, Kaartinen T, Wahlström M, Salminen J (2015) The effect of flotation and parameters for bioleaching of printed circuit boards. Miner Eng 75:26–31. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2015.01.009
Manzella MP, Reguera G, Kashefi K (2013) Extracellular electron transfer to Fe(III) oxides by the hyperthermophilic archaeon Geoglobus ahangari via a direct contact mechanism. Appl Environ Microbiol 79:4694–4700. doi:10.1128/AEM.01566-13
Mapelli F, Marasco R, Balloi A, Rolli E, Cappitelli F, Daffonchio D, Borin S (2012) Mineral-microbe interactions: biotechnological potential of bioweathering. J Biotechnol 157:473–481. doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2011.11.013
Mata YN, Torres E, Blázquez ML, Ballester A, González F, Muñoz JA (2009) Gold(III) biosorption and bioreduction with the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus. J Hazard Mater 166:612–618. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.11.064
Melamud VS, Pivovarova TA, Tourova TP, Kolganova TV, Osipov GA, Lysenko AM, Kondrat'eva TF, Karavaiko GI (2003) Sulfobacillus sibiricus sp. nov., a new moderately thermophilic bacterium. Microbiology 72:605–612. doi:10.1023/A:1026007620113
Mikheenko IP, Rousset M, Dementin S, Macaskie LE (2008) Bioaccumulation of palladium by Desulfovibrio fructosivorans wild-type and hydrogenase-deficient strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:6144–6146. doi:10.1128/AEM.02538-07
Mishra A, Pradhan N, Kar RN, Sukla LB, Mishra BK (2009) Microbial recovery of uranium using native fungal strains. Hydrometallurgy 95:175–177. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.04.005
Mishra D, Rhee YH (2014) Microbial leaching of metals from solid industrial wastes. J Microbiol 52:1–7. doi:10.1007/s12275-014-3532-3
Mokone TP, van Hille RP, Lewis AE (2010) Effect of solution chemistry on particle characteristics during metal sulfide precipitation. J Colloid Interface Sci 351:10–18. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2010.06.027
Murr LE, Murr LE (2014) Structure and function of viruses and bacteria. In: Handbook of materials structures, properties, processing and performance. Springer, Cham, pp 1–14
Natarajan G, Ting YP (2014) Pretreatment of e-waste and mutation of alkali-tolerant cyanogenic bacteria promote gold biorecovery. Bioresour Technol 152:80–85. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.10.108
Natarajan G, Ting YP (2015) Gold biorecovery from e-waste: an improved strategy through spent medium leaching with pH modification. Chemosphere 136:232–238. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.05.046
Natarajan G, Ramanathan T, Bharadwaj A (2015a) Bioleaching of metals from major hazardous solid wastes. Microbiol Miner Met Mater Environ 2025:229–262
Natarajan G, Tay SB, Yew WS, Ting YP (2015b) Engineered strains enhance gold biorecovery from electronic scrap. Miner Eng 75:32–37. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2015.01.002
Neilands JB (1995) Siderophores: structure and function of microbial iron transport compounds. J Biol Chem 270:26723–26726. doi:10.1074/jbc.270.45.26723
Nemati M, Harrison STL (2000) Comparative study on thermophilic and mesophilic biooxidation of ferrous iron. Miner Eng 13:19–24. doi:10.1016/S0892-6875(99)00146-6
Nie S, Yao S, Qin C, Li K, Liu X, Wang L, Song X, Wang S (2014) Kinetics of AOX formation in chlorine dioxide bleaching of bagasse pulp. BioResources 9(3):5604–5614. http://ncsu.edu/bioresources. ISSN: 1930–2126
Nie H, Yang C, Zhu N, Wu P, Zhang T, Zhang Y, Xing Y (2015a) Isolation of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans strain Z1 and its mechanism of bioleaching copper from waste printed circuit boards. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 90:714–721. doi:10.1002/jctb.4363
Nie H, Zhu N, Cao Y, Xu Z, Wu P (2015b) Immobilization of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans on cotton gauze for the bioleaching of waste printed circuit boards. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 177:675–688. doi:10.1007/s12010-015-1772-2
Niu H, Volesky B (2000) Gold-cyanide biosorption with L-cysteine. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 75:436–442. doi:10.1002/1097-4660(200006)75:6<436::AID-JCTB243>3.0.CO;2-O
Niu X, Li Y (2007) Treatment of waste printed wire boards in electronic waste for safe disposal. J Hazard Mater 145:410–416. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.11.039
Olson GJ, Brierley JA, Brierley CL (2003) Bioleaching review part B: progress in bioleaching: applications of microbial processes by the minerals industries. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 63:249–257. doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1404-6
Ongondo FO, Williams ID, Whitlock G (2015) Distinct urban mines: exploiting secondary resources in unique anthropogenic spaces. Waste Manag 45:4–9. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2015.05.026
Orell A, Navarro CA, Arancibia R, Mobarec JC, Jerez CA (2010) Life in blue: copper resistance mechanisms of bacteria and archaea used in industrial biomining of minerals. Biotechnol Adv 28:839–848. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2010.07.003
Park J, Won SW, Mao JE, Kwak IS, Yun YS (2010) Recovery of Pd(II) from hydrochloric solution using polyallylamine hydrochloride-modified Escherichia coli biomass. J Hazard Mater 181:794–800. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.05.083
Park SI, Kwak IS, Bae MA, Mao J, Won SW, Han DH, Chung YS, Yun YS (2012) Recovery of gold as a type of porous fiber by using biosorption followed by incineration. Bioresour Technol 104:208–214. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.018
Pethkar AV, Kulkarni SK, Paknikar KM (2001) Comparative studies on metal biosorption by two strains of Cladosporium cladosporioides. Bioresour Technol 80:211–215. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00080-3
Plumb JJ, Gibbs G, Stott MB, Robertson WJ, Gibson JAE, Nichols PD, Watling HR, Franzmann PD (2002) Enrichment and characterization of thermophilic acidophiles for the bioleaching of mineral sulphides. Miner Eng 15:787–794, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-6875(02)00117-6
Plumb JJ, McSweeney NJ, Franzmann PD (2008) Growth and activity of pure and mixed bioleaching strains on low grade chalcopyrite ore. Miner Eng 21:93–99. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2007.09.007
Potysz A, Lens PNL, van de Vossenberg J, Rene ER, Grybos M, Guibaud G, Kierczak J, van Hullebusch ED (2016) Comparison of Cu, Zn and Fe bioleaching from Cu-metallurgical slags in the presence of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. Appl Geochem 68:39–52. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.03.006
Pradhan JK, Kumar S (2012) Metals bioleaching from electronic waste by Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonads sp. Waste Manag Res 30:1151–1159. doi:10.1177/0734242X12437565
Rawlings DE (2005) Characteristics and adaptability of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms used for the recovery of metals from minerals and their concentrates. Microb Cell Fact 4:13. doi:10.1186/1475-2859-4-13
Rawlings DE, Johnson DB (2007) The microbiology of biomining: development and optimization of mineral-oxidizing microbial consortia. Microbiology 153:315–324. doi:10.1099/mic.0.2006/001206-0
Rawlings DE, Dew D, Du Plessis C (2003) Biomineralization of metal-containing ores and concentrates. Trends Biotechnol 21:38–44. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(02)00004-5
Rees KL, van Deventer JSJ (1999) Role of metal-cyanide species in leaching gold from a copper concentrate. Miner Eng 12:877–892. doi:10.1016/S0892-6875(99)00075-8
Reith F, Etschmann B, Grosse C, Moors H, Benotmane MA, Monsieurs P, Grass G, Doonan C, Vogt S, Lai B, Martinez-Criado G, George GN, Nies DH, Mergeay M, Pring A, Southam G, Brugger J (2009) Mechanisms of gold biomineralization in the bacterium Cupriavidus metallidurans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:17757–17762. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904583106
Rohwerder T, Gehrke T, Kinzler K, Sand W (2003) Bioleaching review part A: progress in bioleaching: fundamentals and mechanisms of bacterial metal sulfide oxidation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 63:239–248. doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1448-7
Ruan J, Zhu X, Qian Y, Hu J (2014) A new strain for recovering precious metals from waste printed circuit boards. Waste Manag 34:901–907. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2014.02.014
Sahinkaya E, Gungor M, Bayrakdar A, Yucesoy Z, Uyanik S (2009) Separate recovery of copper and zinc from acid mine drainage using biogenic sulfide. J Hazard Mater 171:901–906. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.089
Sampaio RMM, Timmers RA, Xu Y, Keesman KJ, Lens PNL (2009) Selective precipitation of Cu from Zn in a pS controlled continuously stirred tank reactor. J Hazard Mater 165:256–265. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.09.117
Sampaio RMM, Timmers RA, Kocks AV, Duarte MT, Van Hullebusch ED, Farges F, Lens PNL (2010) Zn-Ni sulfide selective precipitation: the role of supersaturation. Sep Purif Technol 74:108–118. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2010.05.013
Sand W, Rohde K, Sobotke B, Zenneck C (1992) Evaluation of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans for leaching. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:85–92
Sand W, Gehrke T, Jozsa PG, Schippers A (2001) (Bio)chemistry of bacterial leaching – direct vs. indirect bioleaching. Hydrometallurgy 59:159–175. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(00)00180-8
Schippers A, Jozsa PG, Sand W (1996) Sulfur chemistry in bacterial leaching of pyrite. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:3424–3431
Schlesinger ME, King MJ, Sole KC, Davenport WG (2011) Extractive metallurgy of copper, 5th edn. Elsevier, Oxford
Shin D, Jeong J, Lee S, Pandey BD, Lee JC (2013) Evaluation of bioleaching factors on gold recovery from ore by cyanide-producing bacteria. Miner Eng 48:20–24. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2013.03.019
Silva RA, Park J, Lee E, Park J, Choi SQ, Hyunjungal K (2015) Influence of bacterial adhesion on copper extraction from printed circuit boards. Sep Purif Technol 143:169–176. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2015.01.038
Silverman MP, Lundgren DG (1959) Studies on the chemoautotrophic iron bacterium Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans. J Bacteriol 78:326–331
Spolaore P, Joulian C, Gouin J, Morin D, D’Hugues P (2011) Relationship between bioleaching performance, bacterial community structure and mineralogy in the bioleaching of a copper concentrate in stirred-tank reactors. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 89:441–448. doi:10.1007/s00253-010-2888-5
Syed S (2012) Recovery of gold from secondary sources – a review. Hydrometallurgy 115–116:30–51. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.12.012
Tanaka K, Watanabe N (2015) Study on the coordination structure of Pt sorbed on bacterial cells using X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy. PLoS One 10:1–12. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127417
Tay SB, Natarajan G, Rahim MNBA, Tan HT, Chung MC, Ming T, Yen P, Yew WS (2013) Enhancing gold recovery from electronic waste via lixiviant metabolic engineering in Chromobacterium violaceum. Sci Rep 3:2236. doi:10.1038/srep02236
Ting Y, Mittal AK (2002) Effect of pH on the biosorption of gold by a fungal biosorbent. Resour Environ Biotechnol 3:229–239. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/66550
Ting Y, Pham V (2009) Gold bioleaching of electronic waste by cyanogenic bacteria and its enhancement with bio-oxidation. Adv Mater Res 73:661–665. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.71-73.661
Tributsch H (2001) Direct versus indirect bioleaching. Hydrometallurgy 59:177–185. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(00)00181-X
Tunca S, Barreiro C, Sola-Landa A, Coque JJR, Martín JF (2007) Transcriptional regulation of the desferrioxamine gene cluster of Streptomyces coelicolor is mediated by binding of DmdR1 to an iron box in the promoter of the desA gene. FEBS J 274:1110–1122. doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.05662.x
Tuncuk A, Stazi V, Akcil A, Yazici EY, Deveci H (2012) Aqueous metal recovery techniques from e-scrap: hydrometallurgy in recycling. Miner Eng 25:28–37. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2011.09.019
Ubaldini S, Fornari P, Massidda R, Abbruzzese C (1998) An innovative thiourea gold leaching process. Hydrometallurgy 48:113–124. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(97)00076-5
Ubalua A (2010) Cyanogenic glycosides and the fate of cyanide in soil. Aust J Crop Sci 4:223–237
Valdés J, Pedroso I, Quatrini R, Dodson RJ, Tettelin H, Blake R, Eisen JA, Holmes DS (2008a) Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans metabolism: from genome sequence to industrial applications. BMC Genomics 9:597. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-9-597
Valdés J, Pedroso I, Quatrini R, Holmes DS (2008b) Comparative genome analysis of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans and A. caldus: insights into their metabolism and ecophysiology. Hydrometallurgy 94:180–184. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.05.039
van de Vossenberg JLCM, Driessen AJM, Zillig W, Konings WN (1998) Bioenergetics and cytoplasmic membrane stability of the extremely acidophilic, thermophilic archaeon Picrophilus oshimae. Extremophiles 2:67–74. doi:10.1007/s007920050044
Vera M, Schippers A, Sand W (2013) Progress in bioleaching: fundamentals and mechanisms of bacterial metal sulfide oxidation – Part A. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:7529–7541. doi:10.1007/s00253-013-4954-2
Vijayaraghavan K, Mahadevan A, Sathishkumar M, Pavagadhi S, Balasubramanian R (2011) Biosynthesis of Au(0) from Au(III) via biosorption and bioreduction using brown marine alga Turbinaria conoides. Chem Eng J 167:223–227. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2010.12.027
Wang J, Chen C (2009) Biosorbents for heavy metals removal and their future. Biotechnol Adv 27:195–226. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.11.002
Wang J, Bai J, Xu J, Liang B (2009) Bioleaching of metals from printed wire boards by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans and their mixture. J Hazard Mater 172:1100–1105. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.07.102
Wang F, Ruediger K, Daniel A, Jinhui L (2013) E-waste in China: a country report. http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6132/e_waste_china_en.pdf
Watling HR (2006) The bioleaching of sulphide minerals with emphasis on copper sulphides – a review. Hydrometallurgy 84:81–108. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.05.001
Watling HR (2015) Review of biohydrometallurgical metals Extraction from polymetallic mineral resources. Minerals 5:1–60. doi:10.3390/min5010001
Won SW, Mao J, Kwak IS, Sathishkumar M, Yun YS (2010) Platinum recovery from ICP wastewater by a combined method of biosorption and incineration. Bioresour Technol 101:1135–1140. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.09.056
Won SW, Park J, Mao J, Yun YS (2011) Utilization of PEI-modified Corynebacterium glutamicum biomass for the recovery of Pd(II) in hydrochloric solution. Bioresour Technol 102:3888–3893. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.11.106
Xiang Y, Wu P, Zhu N, Zhang T, Liu W (2010) Bioleaching of copper from waste printed circuit boards by bacterial consortium enriched from acid mine drainage. J Hazard Mater 184:812–818. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.08.113
Xie D, Liu Y, Wu CL, Chen P, Fu JK (2003) Studies of properties on the immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae waste biomass adsorbing Pt. J Xiamen Univ Nat Sci 42(6):800–804
Xie X, Xiao S, He Z, Liu J, Qiu G (2007) Microbial populations in acid mineral bioleaching systems of Tong Shankou Copper Mine, China. J Appl Microbiol 103:1227–1238. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03382.x
Xu TJ, Ting YP (2004) Optimisation on bioleaching of incinerator fly ash by Aspergillus niger–use of central composite design. Enzym Microb Technol 35(5):444–454, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2004.07.003
Xu TJ, Ting YP (2009) Fungal bioleaching of incineration fly ash: metal extraction and modeling growth kinetics. Enzyme Microb Technol 44:323–328. doi:10.1016/j.enzmictec.2009.01.006
Yang X, Sun L, Xiang J, Hu S, Su S (2013) Pyrolysis and dehalogenation of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): a review. Waste Manag 33:462–473. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.025
Ye J, Yin H, Xie D, Peng H, Huang J, Liang W (2013) Copper biosorption and ions release by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in the presence of benzo[a]pyrene. Chem Eng J 219:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2012.12.093
Yin H, Zhang X, Li X, He Z, Liang Y, Guo X, Hu Q, Xiao Y, Cong J, Ma L, Niu J, Liu X (2014a) Whole-genome sequencing reveals novel insights into sulfur oxidation in the extremophile Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. BMC Microbiol 14:179. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-14-179
Yin NH, Sivry Y, Avril C, Borensztajn S, Labanowski J, Malavergne V, Lens PNL, Rossano S, van Hullebusch ED (2014b) Bioweathering of lead blast furnace metallurgical slags by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 86:372–381. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.10.013
Yong P, Rowson NA, Farr JPG, Harris IR, Macaskie LE (2002) Bioreduction and biocrystallization of palladium by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans NCIMB 8307. Biotechnol Bioeng 80:369–379. doi:10.1002/bit.10369
Yue G, Guezennec AG, Asselin E (2016) Extended validation of an expression to predict ORP and iron chemistry: application to complex solutions generated during the acidic leaching or bioleaching of printed circuit boards. Hydrometallurgy 164:334–342. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.06.027
Zammit CM, Cook N, Brugger J, Ciobanu CL, Reith F (2012) The future of biotechnology for gold exploration and processing. Miner Eng 32:45–53. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2012.03.016
Zhou QG, Bo F, Bo ZH, Xi L, Jian G, Fei FL, Hua CX (2007) Isolation of a strain of Acidithiobacillus caldus and its role in bioleaching of chalcopyrite. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 23:1217–1225. doi:10.1007/s11274-007-9350-6
Zhu N, Xiang Y, Zhang T, Wu P, Dang Z, Li P, Wu J (2011) Bioleaching of metal concentrates of waste printed circuit boards by mixed culture of acidophilic bacteria. J Hazard Mater 192:614–619. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.05.062
Zimmerley SR, Wilson DG, Prater JD (1958) Cyclic leaching process employing iron oxidising bacteria. US Patent 2:829–964
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the European Commission (EC) for providing financial support through the Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Programme ETeCoS3 (Environmental Technologies for Contaminated Solids, Soils and Sediments, grant agreement n°2010–0009).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Işıldar, A., van de Vossenberg, J., Rene, E.R., van Hullebusch, E.D., Lens, P.N.L. (2017). Biorecovery of Metals from Electronic Waste. In: Rene, E., Sahinkaya, E., Lewis, A., Lens, P. (eds) Sustainable Heavy Metal Remediation. Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61146-4_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61146-4_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-61145-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-61146-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)