Skip to main content

Means, Ends, and Happiness: The Role of Goals for Subjective Well-Being

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Happy Mind: Cognitive Contributions to Well-Being

Abstract

Through the pursuit of goals people take charge of their own lives. Unsurprisingly, personal goals also have important implications for subjective well-being. The current chapter reviews the conditions under which and the processes through which goal pursuit fosters or hinders the experience of subjective well-being. It provides answers to questions like: Does pursuing goals make people happy? And is the pursuit of all kinds of goals conducive of happiness or what is the role of goal content for happiness? Does it matter whether individuals try to avoid bad outcomes or try to approach good outcomes through their goals? Does it make people happier to pursue concrete goals and to focus on the process or to pursue abstract goals and have the desired outcome in mind? Should individuals always stick to their goals or can it be useful to disengage? And finally: Does what we know about goals and well-being hold universally across all cultures?

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation for developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., & Kuhl, J. (2005). Striving for unwanted goals: Stress-dependent discrepancies between explicit and implicit achievement motives reduce subjective well-being and increase psychosomatic symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 781–799.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, M. H. (1988). Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of values: The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 1009–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandstätter, V., Herrmann, M., & Schüler, J. (2013). The struggle of giving up personal goals: Affective, physiological, and cognitive consequences of an action crisis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1668–1682.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandstätter, V., & Schüler, J. (2013). Action crisis and cost–benefit thinking: A cognitive analysis of a goal-disengagement phase. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 543–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunstein, J. C. (1993). Personal goals and subjective well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1061–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunstein, J. C., Schultheiss, O. C., & Grässmann, R. (1998). Personal goals and emotional well-being: The moderating role of motive dispositions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 494–508.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (2004). Negative affects deriving from the behavioral approach system. Emotion, 4, 3–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (2009). Threat sensitivity, incentive sensitivity, and the experience of relief. Journal of Personality, 77, 125–138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (2015). Control processes, priority management, and affective dynamics. Emotion Review, 7, 301–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Castonguay, A., Wrosch, C., & Sabiston, C. M. (2014). Systemic inflammation among breast cancer survivors: The roles of goal disengagement capacities and health-related self-protection. Psycho-Oncology, 23, 878–885.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coats, E. J., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Alpert, N. (1996). Approach versus avoidance goals: Differences in self-evaluation and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1057–1067.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. The internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Publishing Co..

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, Perspectives on motivation (Vol. 38, pp. 237–288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2008). Motivational and attentional components of personality. In A. Elliot (Ed.), Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation (pp. 461–474). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105–1117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1995). Resources, personal strivings, and subjective wellbeing: A nomothetic and idiographic approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 926–935.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13, 81–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, E., Wrosch, C., & Miller, G. E. (2011). Goal disengagement, functional disability, and depressive symptoms in old age. Health Psychology, 30, 763–770.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ebner, N. C., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: From striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 664–678.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Chirkov, V. I., Kim, Y., & Sheldon, K. M. (2001). A cross-cultural analysis of avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals. Psychological Science, 12, 505–510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (2002). Client-articulated avoidance goals in the therapy context. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 243–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 968–980.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 628–644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & Sheldon, K. M. (1998). Avoidance personal goals and the personality- illness relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1282–1299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Sheldon, K. M., & Church, M. A. (1997). Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 915–927.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058–1068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A. (1991). Personal strivings, daily life events and psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality, 59, 453–472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 292–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A., & King, L. A. (1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1040–1048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 557–572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzsimons, G. M., & Shah, J. Y. (2008). How goal instrumentality shapes relationship evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 319–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, A. M. (2006). Differential motivational consequences of goal focus in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 21, 240–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, A. M., & Hennecke, M. (2012). Changing eating behaviour vs. losing weight: The role of goal focus for weight loss in overweight women. Psychology and Health, 7, 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, A. M., Hennecke, M., & Riediger, M. (2010). Age-related differences in outcome and process goal focus. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 198–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gendolla, G. H., & Richter, M. (2010). Effort mobilization when the self is involved: Some lessons from the cardiovascular system. Review of General Psychology, 14, 212–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993). Representation of intentions: Persisting activation in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 1211–1226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J. (1997). Developmental regulation across adulthood: Primary and secondary control of age-related changes. Developmental Psychology, 33, 176–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Fleeson, W. (2001). Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: The sample case of “biological clock” for childbearing. Psychology and Aging, 16, 400–413.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1999). Culture, self-discrepancies, and self-satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 915–925.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, M., & Brandstätter, V. (2013). Overcoming action crises in personal goals – Longitudinal evidence on a mediating mechanism between action orientation and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 881–893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, J., & Chasiotis, A. (2003). Congruence of life goals and implicit motives as predictors of life satisfaction: Cross-cultural implications of a study of Zambian male adolescent. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 251–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, N. W., & Roberts, B. W. (2014). Goals to change personality traits: Concurrent links between personality traits, daily behavior, and goals to change oneself. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 68–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Impett, E. A., Gordon, A. M., Kogan, A., Oveis, C., Gable, S. L., & Keltner, D. (2010). Moving toward more perfect unions: Daily and long-term consequences of approach and avoidance goals in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 948.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Job, V., Oertig, D., Brandstätter, V., & Allemand, M. (2010). Discrepancies between implicit and explicit motivation and unhealthy eating behavior. Journal of Personality, 78, 1209–1238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39, 341–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410–422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazén, M., & Kuhl, J. (2011). Directional discrepancy between implicit and explicit power motives is related to well-being among managers. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 317–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kehr, H. M. (2004). Implicit/explicit motive discrepancies and volitional depletion among managers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 315–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people’s lives. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko, S. H., & Herrmann, M., & Brandstätter, V. (2015). Unconflicted goal striving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(1), 140–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 331–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T. W., Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1989). Goal setting theory and job performance. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 291–326). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, B. R. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and Behavior, 15, 273–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, B. R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 15–31). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616–628.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luhmann, M., & Hennecke, M. (2017). The motivational consequences of life satisfaction. Motivation Science, 3, 51–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, T., De Ridder, D. T. D., & Fujita, K. (2013). Self-regulation and health behavior: Social psychological approaches to goal setting and goal striving. Health Psychology, 32, 487–498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mauss, I. B., Tamir, M., Anderson, C. K., & Savino, N. S. (2011). Can seeking happiness make people unhappy? Paradoxical effects of valuing happiness. Emotion, 11, 807–815.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Achievement goals as predictors of achievement-relevant processes prior to task engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 381–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Oertig, D., Schüler, J., Schnelle, J., Brandstätter, V., Roskes, M., & Elliot, A. J. (2013). Avoidance goal pursuit depletes self-regulatory resources. Journal of Personality, 81, 365–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogilvie, D. M., Rose, K. M., & Heppen, J. B. (2001). A comparison of personal project motives in three age groups. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 207–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2001). Goals, culture, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1674–1682.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pöhlmann, K., & Brunstein, J. C. (1997). GOALS: Ein Fragebogen zur Messung von Lebenszielen. Diagnostica, 43, 63–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The control of perception. Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. (2004). Interference and facilitation among personal goals: Differential associations with subjective well-being and persistent goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1511–1523.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roskes, M., Elliot, A. J., & De Dreu, C. K. (2014). Why is avoidance motivation problematic, and what can be done about it? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 133–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., & Deci, E. L. (1996). All goals are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals and their regulation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 7–26). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J., Job, V., Fröhlich, S. M., & Brandstätter, V. (2008). A high implicit affiliation motive does not always make you happy: A corresponding explicit motive and corresponding behavior are further needed. Motivation and Emotion, 32, 231–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C. (2008). Implicit motives. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 603–633). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., & Brunstein, J. C. (Eds.). (2010). Implicit motives. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., Jones, N. M., Davis, A. Q., & Kley, C. (2008). The role of implicit motivation in hot and cold goal pursuit: Effects on goal progress, goal rumination, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 971–987.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism-collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagtcibasi, S.-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 85–122). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 482–497.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Ryan, R. M., Chirkov, V., Kim, Y., Wu, C., et al. (2004). Self-concordance and subjective well-being in four cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 209–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Houser-Marko, L. (2001). Self-concordance, goal-attainment and the pursuit of happiness: Can there be an upward spiral? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 152–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing personal goals: Skills enable progress, but not all progress is beneficial. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1319–1331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sideridis, G. D. (2005). Goal orientation, academic achievement, and depression: Evidence in favor of a revised goal theory framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 366–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, E. G. (1979). Memoir. In A. P. French (Ed.), Einstein: A centenary volume (pp. 31–32). London: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2001). Academic self-handicapping: What we know, what more there is to learn. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 115–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, J., De Houwer, J., Moors, A., Van Damme, S., & Crombez, G. (2010). The automatic orienting of attention to goal-relevant stimuli. Acta Psychologica, 134, 61–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., Miller, G. E., Scheier, M. F., & Brun de Pontet, S. (2007). Giving up on unattainable goals: Benefits for health? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 251–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., & Miller, G. E. (2013). Goal adjustment capacities, subjective well-being, and physical health. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 847–860.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Miller, G. E., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. S. (2003). Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1494–1508.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marie Hennecke .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hennecke, M., Brandstätter, V. (2017). Means, Ends, and Happiness: The Role of Goals for Subjective Well-Being. In: Robinson, M., Eid, M. (eds) The Happy Mind: Cognitive Contributions to Well-Being. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58763-9_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics