Skip to main content

From Molecule to Market

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Leadership Hubris Epidemic

Abstract

Little is known about the role of the endocrine system in financial decision-making. Here, we survey research on steroid hormones and their cognitive effects, and examine potential links to trader performance in the financial markets. Preliminary findings suggest that cortisol codes for risk and testosterone for reward. A key finding of this endocrine research is the different cognitive effects of acute versus chronic exposure to hormones: acutely elevated steroids may optimize performance on a range of tasks; but chronically elevated steroids may promote irrational risk-reward choices. We present a hypothesis suggesting that the irrational exuberance and pessimism observed during market bubbles and crashes may be mediated by steroid hormones. If hormones can exaggerate market moves, then perhaps the age and sex composition among traders and asset managers may affect the level of instability witnessed in the financial markets.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Andrew, R. (1991). The development and integration of behaviour. In P. Bateson (Ed.), Essays in honour of Robert Hinde (pp. 171–190). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrew, R., & Rogers, L. (1972). Testosterone, search behaviour and persistence. Nature, 237, 343–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Apicella, C., Dreber, A., Campbell, B., Gray, P., Hoffman, M., & Little, A. (2008). Testosterone and financial risk preferences. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 384–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J. (2006). Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 319–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J., Birring, S., & Wu, F. (1998). The association between testosterone and aggression among young men: Empirical findings and a meta-analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 411–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baulieu, E. (1997). Neurosteroids: Of the nervous system, by the nervous system, for the nervous system. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 52, 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beletsky, L., Gori, D., Freeman, S., & Wingfield, J. (1995). Testosterone and polygyny in birds. Current Ornithology, 12, 141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt, P. C., Dabbs, J., Fielden, J., & Lutter, C. (1998). Changes in testosterone levels during vicarious experiences of winning and losing among fans at sporting events. Physiology & Behavior, 65, 59–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhasin, S., et al. (2001). Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 281, 1172–1181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blume, L., & Easley, D. (2006). If you are so smart why aren’t you rich? Belief selection in complete and incomplete markets. Econometrica, 74, 929–966.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boissy, A., & Bouissou, M. (1994). Effects of androgen treatment on behavioural and physiological responses of heifers to fear-eliciting situations. Hormones and Behavior, 28, 66–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, A., Shelley, G., Mazur, A., Tharp, G., & Kittok, R. (1989). Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition. Hormones and Behavior, 23, 556–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, A., Johnson, D., & Granger, D. (1999). Testosterone and men’s health. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breedlove, S., & Hampson, E. (2002). Behavioral endocrinology. In J. Becker, S. Breedlove, D. Crews, & M. McCarthy (Eds.), (2nd ed., pp. 75–114). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breier, A., Albus, M., Pickar, D., Zahn, T. P., Wolkowitz, O. M., & Paul, S. M. (1987). Controllable and uncontrollable stress in humans: Alterations in mood and neuroendocrine and psychophysiological function. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1419–1425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W., Hines, M., Fane, B., & Breedlove, M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 380–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckingham, J. (1998). Stress and the hypothalamo-pituitary-immune axis. International Journal of Tissue Reactions, 20, 23–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, T. (2007). High-testosterone men reject low ultimatum game offers. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 274, 2327–2330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabib, S., & Puglisi-Allegra, S. (1996). Different effects of repeated stressful experiences on mesocortical and meso-limbic dopamine metabolism. Neuroscience, 73, 375–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldu, X., & Dreher, J. (2007). Hormonal and genetic influences on processing reward and social information. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1118, 43–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camerer, C., & Fehr, E. (2006). When does ‘economic man’ dominate social behavior? Science, 311, 47–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, I. D., Bartolomeo, C., & Dugatkin, L. A. (1994). Aggressive interactions and inter-contest interval: How long do winners keep winning? Animal Behaviour, 48, 393–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choy, K., de Visser, Y., & van den Buuse, M. (2009). The effect of ‘two-hit’ neonatal and young-adult stress on dopaminergic modulation of prepulse inhibition and dopamine receptor density. British Journal of Pharmacology, 156, 388–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, J. M., & Herbert, J. (2008). Endogenous steroids and financial risk taking on a London trading floor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 6167–6172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, J. M., Gurnell, M., & Rustichini, A. (2009). Second-to-fourth digit ratio predicts success among high-frequency financial traders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 623–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Bendahana, C., van de Beeka, C., & Berenbaum, S. (2005). Prenatal sex hormone effects on child and adult sex-typed behavior: Methods and findings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 353–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, C., Lupien, S., & McEwen, B. (1999). Support for a bimodal role for type II adrenal steroid receptors in spatial memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 72, 39–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corodimas, K., LeDoux, J., Gold, P., & Schulkin, J. (1994). Corticosterone potentiation of learned fear. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 746, 392–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daitzman, R., & Zuckerman, M. (1980). Disinhibitory sensation seeking, personality and gonadal hormones. Personality and Individual Differences, 1, 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY: Grosset/Putnam.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bondt, W., & Thaler, R. (1987). Further evidence on investor overreaction and stock market seasonality. The Journal of Finance, 42, 557–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Kloet, E. R. (2000). Stress in the brain. European Journal of Pharmacology, 405, 187–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Kloet, E. R., Vreugdenhil, E., Oitzl, M. S., & Joels, M. (1998). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocrine Reviews, 19, 269–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Martino, B., Kumaran, D., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. (2006). Frames, biases and rational decision-making in the human brain. Science, 313, 684–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dreher, J.-C., Schmidt, P. J., Kohn, P., Furman, D., Rubinov, D., & Berman, K. F. (2007). Menstrual cycle phase modulates reward-related neural function in women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 2465–2470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dufty, A. M. (1989). Testosterone and survival: A cost of aggressiveness? Hormones and Behavior, 23, 185–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dugatkin, L., & Druen, M. (2004). The social implications of winner and loser effects. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences (Suppl.) 271, S488–S489.  

    Google Scholar 

  • Elias, M. (1981). Serum cortisol, testosterone, and testosterone-binding globulin responses to competitive fighting in human males. Aggressive Behavior, 7, 215–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, K., Drevets, W., & Schulkin, J. (2003). Glucocorticoid regulation of diverse cognitive functions in normal and pathological emotional states. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 233–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falkenstein, E., Tillmann, H., Christ, M., Feuring, M., & Wehling, M. (2000). Multiple actions of steroid hormones—A focus on rapid, nongenomic effects. Pharmacological Reviews, 52, 513–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falter, C., Arroyo, M., & Davis, G. (2006). Testosterone: Activation or organization of spatial cognition? Biological Psychology, 73, 132–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frye, C., Rhodes, M., Rosellini, R., & Svare, B. (2002). The nucleus accumbens as a site of action for rewarding properties of testosterone and its 5alpha-reduced metabolites. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 74, 119–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Funder, J. W. (1997). Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors: Biology and clinical relevance. Annual Review of Medicine, 48, 224–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gladue, B., Boechler, M., & McCaul, K. D. (1989). Hormonal response to competition in human males. Aggressive Behavior, 15, 409–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurnell, M., Burrin, J., & Chatterjee, K. (2017). Principles of hormone action. In D. Warrell, T. Cox & J. Firth (Eds.), Oxford textbook of medicine (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hermans, E., Putman, P., Baas, J., Koppeschaar, H., & van Honk, J. (2006). A single administration of testosterone reduces fear-potentiated startle in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 872–874.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, Y., & Wolf, L. (2001). The winner and loser effect: What fighting behaviours are influenced? Animal Behaviour, 61, 777–786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, M., Bhatt, M., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Camerer, C. (2005). Neural systems responding to uncertainty in human decision-making. Science, 310, 1680–1683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurd, P. (2006). Resource holding potential, subjective resource value, and game theoretical models of aggressiveness signaling. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 241, 639–648.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikemoto, S., & Panksepp, J. (1999). The role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in motivated behavior: A unifying interpretation with special reference to reward-seeking. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 6–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kademian, S., Bignante, A., Lardone, P., McEwen, B., & Volosin, M. (2005). Biphasic effects of adrenal steroids on learned helplessness behavior induced by inescapable shock. Neuropsychopharm, 30, 58–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashkin, K., & Kleber, H. (1989). Hooked on hormones? An anabolic steroid addiction hypothesis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 3166–3170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korte, S. (2001). Corticosteroids in relation to fear, anxiety and psychopathology. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 25, 117–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhnen, C., & Knutson, B. (2005). The neural basis of financial risk taking. Neuron, 47, 763–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, S., Coe, C., & Wiener, S. G. (1989). Psychoneuroendocrinology of stress: A psychobiological perspective. In F. Bush & S. Levine (Eds.), Psychoendocrinology (pp. 341–377). New York: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liston, C., Miller, M. M., Goldwater, D. S., Radley, J. J., Rocher, A. B., Hof, P. R., et al. (2006). Stress-induced alterations in prefrontal cortical dendritic morphology predicts selective impairments in perceptual attention set-shifting. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 7870–7874.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liston, C., McEwen, B., & Casey, B. (2009). Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 912–917.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loewenstein, G., Weber, E., & Hsee, C. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 267–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, L. R., Wang, C. J., McCall, T. J., & McEwen, B. (2007). Effects of immobilization stress on neurochemical markers in the motivational system of the male rat. Brain Research, 1155, 108–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lupien, S. J., Maheu, F., Tu, M., Fiocco, A., & Schramek, T. E. (2007). The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition. Brain and Cognition, 65, 209–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J., Scutt, D., Wilson, D., & Lewis-Jones, D. (1998). 2nd to 4th digit length: A predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction, 13, 3000–3004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marler, C. A., & Moore, M. C. (1988). Evolutionary costs of aggression revealed by testosterone manipulations in free-living male lizards. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 23, 21–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, S., Simmons, A., Lane, S., & Paulus, M. (2004). Selective activation of the nucleus accumbens during risk-taking decision making. NeuroReport, 15, 2123–2127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, A., Booth, A., & Dabbs, J. (1992). Testosterone and chess competition. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 70–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 33–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. (2001). From molecules to mind: Stress, individual differences, and the social environment. In A. Damasio et al. (Eds.), Unity of knowledge: The convergence of natural and human science. The Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 935, 42–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Endocrine Reviews, 87, 873–904.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B., & Chattarji, S. (2004). Molecular mechanisms of neuroplasticity and pharmacological implications: The example of tianeptine. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 14, S497–S502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B., & Milner, T. (2007). Hippocampal formation: Shedding light on the influence of sex and stress on the brain. Brain Research Reviews, 55, 343–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B., Weiss, J. M., & Schwartz, L. S. (1968). Selective retention of corticosterone by limbic structures in rat brain. Nature, 220, 911–912.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, M. (2006). The use of digit ratios as markers for perinatal androgen action. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 4, 10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meaney, M. (1988). The sexual differentiation of social play. Trends in Neurosciences, 11, 54–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan, E. P., & Glickman, S. E. (2001). Hormones and aggressive behavior. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioural endocrinology (pp. 261–287). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neat, F., Huntingford, F., & Beveridge, M. (1998). Fighting and assessment in male cichlid fish: The effects of asymmetries in gonadal state and body size. Animal Behaviour, 55, 883–891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, D., Archer, J., & Wu, F. (2004). Effects of testosterone on mood, aggression, and sexual behavior in young men: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89, 2837–2845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyegbile, T., & Marler, C. (2005). Winning fights elevates testosterone levels in California mice and enhances future ability to win fights. Hormones and Behavior, 48, 259–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phoenix, C., Goy, R., Gerall, A., & Young, W. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology, 65, 369–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piazza, P. V., & Le Moal, M. (1997). Glucocorticoids as biological substrate of reward: Physiological and pathophysiological implications. Brain Research Reviews, 25, 259–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piazza, P., Deroche, V., Deminie`re, J. M., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., & Simon, H. (1993). Corticosterone in the range of stress-induced levels possesses reinforcing properties: Implications for sensation-seeking behaviours. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 11738–11742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H., & Katz, D. (1988). Affective and psychotic symptoms associated with anabolic steroid use. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 487–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H., Kouri, E., & Hudson, J. (2000). Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 133–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reavis, R., & Overman, W. (2001). Adult sex differences on a decision-making task previously shown to depend on the orbital prefrontal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience, 115, 196–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reichlin, S. (1998). Neuroendocrinology. In J. D. Nelson, H. M. Kronenberg, & P. P. Larson (Eds.), Williams textbook of endocrinology (10th ed., pp. 165–248). Philadelphia, PA: N. B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reul, J. M., & de Kloet, E. R. (1985). Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: Microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology, 117, 2505–2511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutte, C., Taborsky, M., & Brinkhof, M. (2006). What sets the odds of winning and losing?Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21, 16–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salminen, E., Portin, R., Koskinen, A., Helenius, H., & Nurmi, M. (2004). Associations between serum testosterone fall and cognitive function in prostate cancer patients. Clinical Cancer Research, 10, 7575–7582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanfey, A., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the ultimatum game. Science, 13, 1755–1758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. (1997). The trouble with testosterone: And other essays on the biology of the human predicament. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarnyai, Z., McKittrick, C. R., McEwen, B., & Kreek, M. J. (1998). Selective regulation of dopamine transporter binding in the shell of the nucleus accumbens by adrenalectomy and corticosterone replacement. Synapse, 30, 334–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarnyai, Z., Shaham, Y., & Heinrichs, S. C. (2001). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in drug addiction. Pharmacological Reviews, 53, 209–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato, S. M., Schulz, K., Sisk, C., & Wood, R. (2008). Adolescents and androgens, receptors and rewards. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 647–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, J., & Packard, M. (2000). Role of dopamine receptor subtypes in the acquisition of a testosterone conditioned place preference in rats. Neuroscience Letters, 282, 17–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulkin, J., McEwen, B. S., & Gold, P. W. (1994). Allostasis, amygdala, and anticipatory angst. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 18, 385–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1, 199–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurochemistry, 20, 11–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shephard, J. D., Barron, K. W., & Myers, D. A. (2000). Corticosterone delivery to the amygdala increases corticotropin-releasing factor mRNA in the central amygdaloid nucleus and anxiety-like behavior. Brain Research, 861, 288–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiller, R. (2005). Irrational exuberance. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroud, L., Salovey, P., & Epel, E. (2002). Sex differences in stress responses: Social rejection versus achievement stress. Biological Psychiatry, 319, 318–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swenson, R., & Vogel, W. (1983). Plasma catecholamine and corticosterone as well as brain catecholamine changes during coping in rats exposed to stressful footshock. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 18, 689–693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trainor, B. C., Bird, I. M., & Marler, C. A. (2004). Opposing hormonal mechanisms of aggression revealed through short-lived testosterone manipulations and multiple winning experiences. Hormones and Behavior, 45, 115–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, M.-J., & O’Malley, B. W. (1994). Molecular mechanisms of action of steroid/thyroid receptor superfamily members. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 63, 451–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vadakkadath Meethal, S., & Atwood, C. S. (2005). The role of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal hormones in the normal structure and functioning of the brain. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 62, 257–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bergh, B., & Dewitte, S. (2006). Digit ratio (2D:4D) moderates the impact of sexual cues on men’s decisions in ultimatum games. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273, 2091–2095.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Honk, J., Schutter, D., Hermans, E., & Putman, P. (2003). Low cortisol levels and the balance between punishment sensitivity and reward dependency. NeuroReport, 14, 1993–1996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Honk, J., Schuttera, D. J. L. G., Hermansa, E. J., Putmana, P., Tuitena, A., & Koppeschaar, H. (2004). Testosterone shifts the balance between sensitivity for punishment and reward in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 937–943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vermeersch, H., T’sjoen, G., Kaufman, J. M., & Vincke, J. (2008). The role of testosterone in aggressive and non-aggressive risk-taking in adolescent boys. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 463–471. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.11.021.

  • Wingfield, J. C., Hegner, R. E., Dufty, A. M., & Ball, G. F. (1990). The ‘challenge hypothesis’: Theoretical implications for patterns of testosterone secretion, mating systems, and breeding strategies. American Naturalist, 136, 829–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wingfield, J. C., Lynn, S., & Soma, K. (2001). Avoiding the ‘costs’ of testosterone: Ecological bases of hormone-behavior interactions. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 57, 239–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Coates, J., Gurnell, M., Sarnyai, Z. (2018). From Molecule to Market. In: Garrard, P. (eds) The Leadership Hubris Epidemic. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57255-0_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics