Abstract
The outlook in the Middle East and the Maghrib remained troublesome for Washington. The protests against the embassies and consulates of the US and its allied European powers, as well as against American companies and schools, expanded to more than 19 countries in North Africa and the Middle East, including Egypt, Tunisia, Yemen, Iran, Iraq, Gaza and Israel, reaching even Sudan and Indonesia and giving expression to the latent spirit of revolt. Demonstrations occurred in Casablanca, Tunis, Sudan, Bangladesh, Teheran, Baghdad, and Tel Aviv. Washington was facing an enormous challenge, because the situation in the Middle East was expected to remain turbulent in the foreseeable future and far beyond, assessed Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations. Washington sent 106 tanks to Yemen, 12 of which to defend the embassy against new attacks by the Jihadists, who had struck it on September 13, shortly after the attack on the American consulate in Benghazi. And along with the tanks, the Pentagon dispatched 50 marines to Sana’a.
In addition to the power crisis, sectarian divisions were getting worse in Libya, and the economic situation was equally tough and tended to feed into the social instability and political conflicts. The United States and the International Monetary Fund were imposing cookie-cutter solutions, i.e., the standard solutions that they always imposed on all countries, such as the privatization or outsourcing of state companies and the elimination of the basic food and energy subsidies the Gaddafi regime had given to the poorest segments of the population and to African States, including Mali, Ethiopia, Mauritania, Liberia, Chad, Darfur, Sudan, Somalia, Niger, Nigeria, Congo and other countries.
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Notes
- 1.
David D. Kirkpatrick, Suliman Ali Zway and Kareem Fahim, “Attack by Fringe Group Highlights the Problem of Libya’s Militias”, The New York Times, September 15, 2012.
- 2.
Since 1968, five ambassadors from the United States have been assassinated: John Gordon Mein in Guatemala (1968), Adolph Dubs in Afghanistan (1979), Cleo A. Noel Jr. in Sudan (1973), Rodger P. Davies in Cyprus (1974), and Francis E. Meloy Jr. in Lebanon (1976).
- 3.
David D. Kirkpatrick, “Anger Over a Film Fuels Anti-American Attacks in Libya and Egypt”, The New York Times, September 11, 2012. Ashraf Khalil, “Cairo and Benghazi Attacks: Two Sets of Fundamentalisms Unleash Havoc. Two attacks on American diplomatic buildings in Cairo and Benghazi, Libya, illustrate the ugly bigotry of two sets of religious fundamentalists in different ends of the world”, Time, September 11, 2012. David D. Kirkpatrick and Steven Lee Myers, “Libya Attack Brings Challenges for U.S.”, The New York Times, September 12, 2012.
- 4.
Michael R. Gordon, Eric Schmitt and Michael S. Schmidt, “Libya Warnings Were Plentiful, but Unspecific”, The New York Times, October 29, 2012.
- 5.
“Abu Sufian Ibrahim Ahmed Hamuda Bin Qumu is a 53-year-old citizen of Libya. He was transferred to Libya on Sept. 28, 2007”. SECRET//NOFORNI I 20300422 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, JOINT TASK FORCE GUANTANAMO BAY. CUBA APO AE 09360 JTF GTMO-CG 22 Aprrl2005 3511NW 9lst Avenue, United States Southern Command, MEMORANDUM FOR Commander, Miami. L 33 172.F to Recommendation Transfer the Control of Another Country for to SUBJECT: Update (S) (TRCD) for Guantanamo ISN: US9LY-000557DP Detainee, Detention Continued Assessment JTF GTMO Detainee Information: 1. (FOUO) Personal JDIMSAIDRC Reference Name: Abu Sufian Ibrahim Ahmed Hamouda Aliases and Current/TrueName: Abu Sufian Ibrahim Ahmed Hamuda Bin Oumu. Abu Mariam. Abdul Faris Al Libi. Abu Faris Al Libi. Marwan. Al Hassari.Abdul RazzaqHamad. Ibn Mabrukah Hamad o Place of Birth: Darna.Libya (LY) Date of Birth: 26 June 1959 Citizenship: Libya o Internment Serial Number (ISN): US9LY-000557DP 2. (FOUO) Health: Detainee has a non-specific personality disorder. He has no known drug and refuses allergies and is not on any chronic medications. Detainee has latent Tuberculosis treatment. He has no travel restrictions. 3. (S//NF)JTF GTMO Assessment: to detainee transferred the be a. (S) Recommendation: JTFGTMO recommends (TRCD). Detention Control of Another Country for Continued Retaining DoD (DoD) on assessed detainee b. (S//NF)Summary: JTFGTMO previously previous it is assessment, since detainee’s 23 August 2003. Based upon information obtained CLASSIFIED BY: MULTIPLE SOURCES REASON: E.O. 12958SECTION 1.5(C) DECLASSIFY ON: 20300422 SECRET//NOFORN/ I 20300422 Fonte: Guantánamo Dockt. The New York Times, http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/557-abu-sufian-ibrahim-ahmed-hamuda-bin-qumu
- 6.
David D. Kirkpatrick, Suliman Ali Zway and Kareem Fahim, “Attack by Fringe Group Highlights the Problem of Libya’s Militias”, The New York Times, September 15, 2012.
- 7.
Religious legal expert, cleric.
- 8.
Weber, 1996, p. 287.
- 9.
Jill Reilly, “‘Death to America’ chant protestors as they storm U.S. Embassy in Yemen smashing windows and pelting offices with stones”, Daily Mail, September 13, 2012.
- 10.
“Al Zawahri personally ordered Al Qaeda to murder US Ambassador Stevens”, DEBKA file Exclusive Report, September 12, 2012.
- 11.
Eric Schmitt, “After Benghazi Attack, Talk Lagged Behind Intelligence”, The New York Times, October 21, 2012a.
- 12.
David D. Kirkpatrick, Suliman Ali Zway and Kareem Fahim, “Attack by Fringe Group Highlights the Problem of Libya’s Militias”, The New York Times, September 15, 2012.
- 13.
Steven Lee Myers, “Clinton Suggests Link to Qaeda Offshoot in Deadly Libya Attack”, The New York Times, September 26, 2012.
- 14.
“Arab Protests: Clinton Urges Countries to Resist Tyranny of Mob”, Reuters/The Huffington Post, 15/9/2012.
- 15.
- 16.
“Putin: Using Al-Qaeda in Syria like sending Gitmo inmates to fight (Exclusive)”, Russia Today—TV-Novosti, September 6, 2012.
- 17.
Pierre Prier, “Libye: combats dans un ex-fief de Kadhafi”, Le Figaro, 22/10/2012.
- 18.
Mohammad Omar Beaiou, “Libyan Revolution Continues with Uprising Against Militias”, Al Monitor, October 1, 2012.
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Ibid.
- 21.
- 22.
Abigail Hauslohner, “After Benghazi attacks, Islamist extremists akin to al-Qaeda stir fear in eastern Libya”, The Washington Post, October 27, 2012.
- 23.
Kimberly Dozier, “U.S. scrambles to rush spies, drones to Libya”, Associated Press, USA Today, September 15, 2012.
- 24.
Ibid.
- 25.
James Risen, “After Benghazi Attack, Private Security Hovers as an Issue”, The New York Times, October 12, 2012.
- 26.
“Massenproteste in arabischer Welt—USA fürchten Wut der Muslime—Demonstranten vor der US-Botschaft in Sanaa: Video soll Wut provozieren”, Reuters/Der Spiegel, 13/9/2012.
- 27.
Peter Baker e Mark Landler, “U.S. Is Preparing for a Long Siege of Arab Unrest”, The New York Times, September 15, 2012.
- 28.
“About 106 US tanks delivered to Yemen”, Al-Sahwa Net, Yemen news site, 14/10/2012.
- 29.
“Gaddafi placed $97 Billion to free Africa from imperialism”, CounterPsyOps.
- 30.
Scott Baldauf, “Will Africa miss Qaddafi? Even with Muammar Qaddafi’s deep financial ties across Africa, many of the continent’s leaders are ambivalent about his departure”, The Christian Science Monitor, August 23, 2011.
- 31.
Rukmini Callimachi, “Amadou Haya Sanogo, Mali Coup Leader, Derails 20 Years of Democracy”, Huffington Post, 7/7/2012.
- 32.
Moraes Farias, 2003, p. CXV, CXVI–CXVII. Damon de Laszlo, “The Tuareg on the Sahara—The Nomadic Inhabitants of North Africa—Tuareg Merchant Trade Routes across the Sahara”, Bradshaw Foundation. For the Tuareg’s regions: Azawad—The Tuareg region in the Sahara. In: http://s1142.photobucket.com/user/boavista1/media/1144_050412mali_zps30bceb86.gif.html. Accessed 08.04.2015.
- 33.
It is estimated that around 2 million still live in the Sahara.
- 34.
Kemper, 2012, p. 23. Damon de Laszlo, “The Tuareg on the Sahara—The Nomadic Inhabitants of North Africa—Tuareg Merchant Trade Routes across the Sahara”, Bradshaw Foundation. Main trade routes of the Tuareg. In: http://bradshawfoundation.com/tuareg/tuareg.php. Accessed 08.04.2015.
- 35.
Kennan, 2002, p. xxii, 5.
- 36.
Ibid., p. 10.
- 37.
Lydia Polgreen and Alan Cowell, “Mali Rebels Proclaim Independent State in North”, The New York Times, April 6, 2012. See: Algeria—The Ahaggar Massif. In: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/dznewzz.gif. Accessed 08.04.2015.
- 38.
Timbuktu, located in the Sahara Desert, was the seat of the Koranic Sankore University and other madrasas, as well as of the Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahia mosques and, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it was the cultural center of Islam.
- 39.
Mahmoud Sidibe Qadri, “Destruction of Timbuktu Sufi Shrines Exposes Wahhabi Agenda. CounterPsyOps”, The Islamic Post, August 29, 2012. “Protest gegen Unesco. Islamisten zerstören Weltkulturerbe in Timbuktu. Islamistische Kämpfer haben in Timbuktu im Norden Malis jahrhundertealte Gräber zerstört und weitere Verwüstungen angekündigt. Ihren Bildersturm erklären sie als ‘Auftrag Gottes’ gegen die Unesco”, Welt Online, 30/6/2012. “Bürgerkrieg in Mali Islamisten zerstören Weltkulturerbe” Der Spiegel, 30/6/2012. Andrea Böhm, “Mali Taliban in Timbuktu—Im westafrikanischen Mali spielt sich eine Tragödie ab. Islamisten errichten im Norden des Landes eine Terrorherrschaft. Wer greift ein?”, Die Zeit, 30/8/2012.
- 40.
Dianguina Tounkara and Yaya Traore, “Négociations sur le Nord du Mali: Partition, autonomie ou respect de la Constitution de 1992? Entre dissonances constitutionnelles et périls sécessionnistes”, Mali Actualités, September 22, 2012. About Mali and the territory claimed by the MNLA: http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/10/all-hailazawad/?_r=0. Accessed 08.04.2015.
- 41.
Cordula Meyer, “Uranium Mining in Niger—Tuareg Activist Takes on French Nuclear Company”, Spiegel Online, 4/2/2010.
- 42.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, Background Note: Mali, January 3, 2012.
- 43.
“Azawad, Why is the International Community Ignoring this?”, The Moor Next Door, Maghreb Affairs, Geopolitics, International Relations, in forum Ancient Egypt at EgyptSearch Forums. Assist America—Pre-Trip-Information, http://assistamerica.countrywatch.com/rcountry.aspx?vcountry=3&topic=CBWIR&uid=5824177
- 44.
Andy Morgan, “Mali’s Tuareg Rebellion”, The Global Dispatches, March 27, 2012.
- 45.
“Mali coup leader trained with US military: Pentagon”, The Times of India, AFP, March 28, 2012. About the sources of funding in Northern Mali: Le Canard Enchaîné l’a révélé hier : Le Qatar finance les terroristes d’Aqmi et du Mujao 2012. 06.06, http://www.cridem.org/C_Info.php?article=630368
- 46.
Brendan O’Reilly, “China’s Winning Strategy in Africa”, Asia Times, August 16, 2012.
- 47.
Keenan, 2009, p. 2.
- 48.
Pan Sahel Initiative, Office of Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State Archive, November 7, 2002.
- 49.
- 50.
The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership, U.S. Africa Command, Program Overview, General Carter F. Ham, Commander.
- 51.
Keenan, 2009, p. 51 and 124.
- 52.
“Massive US Military Buildup on Two Strategic Islands: Socotra and Masirah”, DEBKA-Net-Weekly, January 26, 2012.
- 53.
Flickr, U.S. Africa Command: GAO, Mali, A U.S. Navy SEAL, advisor watches a Malian special operations, http://www.flickr.com/photos/africom/4406298566/
- 54.
Keenan, 2009, p. 9.
- 55.
Lee Berthiaume, “Canada could be drawn into Mali civil war. Calls for military intervention grow after al-Qaida insurgents take over country’s north”, Vancouver Sun, July 13, 2012.
- 56.
“Mali: Civil war or peace negotiations?”, All Voices, Bamako, Mali, April, 12, 2012.
- 57.
Faith Karimi, “U.N. Security Council seeks detailed Mali military intervention plan”, CNN, October 13, 2012. “UN urges military action plan for Mali. Security Council gives West African nations 45 days to provide details of plan for international military intervention”, Al Jazeera, October 13, 2012. “El Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU aprueba la intevención militar en Malí”, El País (Spain), 13/10/2012.
- 58.
Gilles Lapouge, “O Hamas e o Catar”, O Estado de S. Paulo, 25/10/2012.
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Moniz Bandeira, L.A. (2017). Terror and Antiterror in North Africa. In: The Second Cold War. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54888-3_18
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