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The Law of the Baltic States

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Abstract

The chapter deals with the overview of the historical development of the law in the territories historically inhabited by Latvians as well as the development of the legal arrangement starting with the German and Russian influence, proclamation of the Republic of Latvia in 1918, then the occupation by the USSR, and finally the restoration of Latvia’s independence de facto in 1990. The chapter also gives brief information about Latvian judicial system, main institutions for implementation of justice and basic functions of judicial bodies and administrative authorities. It provides overview on the status and normative regulation for the application of the international law as well as the European Union law. Finally, the chapter stresses the future possible challenges for the legal arrangement for example, the enlargement of the EU and the protection of the inviolable core of the Constitution at the same time, the increasing role of the judiciary and the elevated required qualities for the judges in the contemporary legal arrangement, increasingly important role of the communication with the society through the mass media and the quality of its content, the influence of the terrorism on the human rights, and regulatory frameworks for the modern technologies.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Šterns (2002), pp. 109–111.

  2. 2.

    Lazdiņš (2009), pp. 59–66.

  3. 3.

    Švābe (1927), p. 3.

  4. 4.

    Lazdiņš (2006), pp. 1–9.

  5. 5.

    Kalniņš (1972), p. 27.

  6. 6.

    Lazdiņš (2006), p. 8.

  7. 7.

    Bunge (1862), pp. 3–4, 9–130; Meļķisis (1998), pp. 101–120, 178–181, 239–250.

  8. 8.

    Blūzma (2006), p. 49.

  9. 9.

    Ziegenhorn (1772), pp. 51– 56.

  10. 10.

    Dunsdorfs (1962), pp. 70, 127–131.

  11. 11.

    Blūzma (2006), p. 113.

  12. 12.

    Ziegenhorn (1772), pp. 129–134.

  13. 13.

    Blūzma (2006), pp. 189–257; Kalniņš (1972), pp. 142–145.

  14. 14.

    Švābe (1930), pp. 112–117; Dunsdorfs (1962), pp. 397–411.

  15. 15.

    Blūzma (2006), pp. 113.

  16. 16.

    Jundzis and Zemītis (2014), pp. 173–196.

  17. 17.

    Kalniņš (1972), pp. 348–350; Lēbers (2000), pp. 41–59.

  18. 18.

    Schäfer Frank and Schubert (2013), pp. 91–106.

  19. 19.

    Part III of Collection of Local Laws of the Baltic Provinces, Civil Laws (Сводъ местныхъ узаконенiй губернiй остзейскиxъ. Часть третiя. Законы гражданскiе). 1864. Санктпетербург. Въ типографiи втораго отделенiя собственной Е.И.В. канцелярiи.

  20. 20.

    Нольде АЭ., Баронъ (1914).

  21. 21.

    Томсинов (2004), pp. 311–320.

  22. 22.

    Political Platform. Pagaidu Valdības Vēstnesis, 1918, No. 1.

  23. 23.

    Dišlers (1935), pp. 1, 35.

  24. 24.

    Lazdiņš (2014), pp. 9–20.

  25. 25.

    Lazdiņš (2013), pp. 10–12.

  26. 26.

    Lazdiņš (2015c), pp. 50–58.

  27. 27.

    The Constitution of the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republikas Satversme). Valdības Vēstnesis, 1922, No. 141, http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=57980.

  28. 28.

    Aizsilnieks (1968), pp. 242–246, 343–349, 711–722.

  29. 29.

    Lēbers (2000), pp. 200–201, 245–253.

  30. 30.

    Latvian Civil Law. Likumu un Ministru kabineta noteikumu krājums, 1937, (document) No. 29.

  31. 31.

    Švarcs (2011), pp. 254–262.

  32. 32.

    Lēbers (2000), pp. 274–276.

  33. 33.

    Lazdiņš (2015c), pp. 168–186.

  34. 34.

    Lazdiņš (2007), pp. 19–20.

  35. 35.

    Lazdiņš (2015c), pp. 187–203.

  36. 36.

    Lēbers (2000), pp. 355–357.

  37. 37.

    Lēbers (2000), pp. 373–415.

  38. 38.

    Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia. Latvijas Republikas Augstākās Padomes un Valdības Ziņotājs (1990), Nr. 20, http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=75539.

  39. 39.

    Amendment to the Latvian Constitution. http://likumi.lv/ta/id/267428-grozijums-latvijas-republikas-satversme.

  40. 40.

    Balodis (2014), p. 255.

  41. 41.

    Lazdiņš (2015c), pp. 206–207.

  42. 42.

    Schöbener and Knauff (2013), pp. 107–108.

  43. 43.

    Lazdiņš (2015a), pp. 357–360.

  44. 44.

    Lazdiņš (2015b), pp. 43–67.

  45. 45.

    Schöbener and Knauff (2013), p. 108.

  46. 46.

    Constitution of the Republic of Latvia. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Constitution.doc.

  47. 47.

    Law on Judicial Power. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Judicial_Power.pdf.

  48. 48.

    Civil Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Civil_Procedure_Law.pdf.

  49. 49.

    Criminal Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Criminal_Procedure_Law.doc.

  50. 50.

    Administrative Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Administrative_Procedure_Law.doc.

  51. 51.

    Constitutional Court Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Constitutional_Court_Law.doc.

  52. 52.

    Regulations of Cabinet of Ministers No. 412 “Terms of the district (city) courts, regional courts and the judicial activity areas”, LV, 2015, No 147 (5465), 29.07.2015.

  53. 53.

    Judgement of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2003-04-01, on 27 June 2003, para 2.1. the concluding part. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2003/02/2003-04-01_Spriedums_ENG-1.pdf; Judgement of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2007-22-01, on 2 June 2008, para 18.2. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/2007-22-01_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  54. 54.

    Notariate Law. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Notariate_Law.doc.

  55. 55.

    Judgment of the European Court of Justice in case No. C-151/14, on 10 September 2015, European Commission V Republic of Latvia. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62014CJ0151&from=EN.

  56. 56.

    Osipova (2016), pp. 12–15.

  57. 57.

    Judgement of the Constitutional Court in Case No 2012-16-01, on 10 May 2013. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2012-16-01_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  58. 58.

    Levits (2014), pp. 21–24.

  59. 59.

    Balodis (2010).

  60. 60.

    Krūmiņa (2013), p. 25.

  61. 61.

    Judicial Disciplinary Liability Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Judicial_Disciplinary_Liability.pdf.

  62. 62.

    Kalniņš et al. (2008), http://providus.lv/article_files/1903/original/Zinojums_FINAL.pdf?1339440792.

  63. 63.

    Office of the Prosecutor Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Office_of_the_Prosecutor.doc.

  64. 64.

    Advocacy Law of the Republic of Latvia. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Advocacy_Law_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia.doc.

  65. 65.

    Notariate Law. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Notariate_Law.doc.

  66. 66.

    Litvins (2016).

  67. 67.

    Law on Bailiffs. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Law_On_Bailiffs.doc.

  68. 68.

    Kucina (2014).

  69. 69.

    Notariate Law. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Notariate_Law.doc.

  70. 70.

    Pētersone (2013), p. 327.

  71. 71.

    Rone (2008).

  72. 72.

    Mediation Law. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Mediation_Law.doc.

  73. 73.

    Pētersone (2012).

  74. 74.

    Lapsa (2014).

  75. 75.

    The Arbitration Law. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Arbitration_Law.pdf.

  76. 76.

    Kačevska (2014).

  77. 77.

    Constitution of the Republic of Latvia. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Constitution.doc.

  78. 78.

    Scheinin (1996), p. 14.

  79. 79.

    See, e.g., Van Elsuwege (2008), pp. 157–161.

  80. 80.

    On International Treaties of the Republic of Latvia. http://vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/On_International_Treaties_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia.doc.

  81. 81.

    Constitutional Court Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Constitutional_Court_Law.doc.

  82. 82.

    Administrative Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Administrative_Procedure_Law.doc.

  83. 83.

    Judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2004-01-06 on 7 July 2004, para 6. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2004/01/2004-01-06_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  84. 84.

    Bērziņa-Andersone et al. (2009), p. 36.

  85. 85.

    Kādēļ Latvijas konstitūcijā nepieciešami labojumi? Darba grupas Satversmes grozījumu izstrādāšanai piedāvātā projekta teorētiskais pamatojums (Why should the Latvian Constitution be amended? Theoretical Foundation of the Amendments to Satversme). (2001) Jurista Vārds. 14 (207), p. 3. This publication reflects the theoretical foundation of the amendments to the Latvian Constitution proposed by the working group of the Ministry of Justice that prepared those amendments.

  86. 86.

    Kādēļ Latvijas konstitūcijā nepieciešami labojumi? Darba grupas Satversmes grozījumu izstrādāšanai piedāvātā projekta teorētiskais pamatojums (Why should the Latvian Constitution be amended? Theoretical Foundation of the Amendments to Satversme). (2001) Jurista Vārds. 14 (207), p. 3.

  87. 87.

    Constitution of the Republic of Latvia, Art. 68. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Constitution.doc.

  88. 88.

    Buka (2014), p. 20.

  89. 89.

    See Prechal and Widdershoven (2008), pp. 81–98.

  90. 90.

    Buka (2014), p. 21.

  91. 91.

    See Bobek (2008), pp. 1611–1643.

  92. 92.

    See, e.g., Art. 15 of the Latvian Administrative procedure law.

  93. 93.

    See, e.g., judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2004-01-06 on 7 July 2004. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2004/01/2004-01-06_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  94. 94.

    Judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2006-03-0106 on 23 November 2006, para 8.2. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/2006-03-0106_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  95. 95.

    Ibid.

  96. 96.

    Judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2007-11-03 on 17 January 2008, para 25. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/2007-11-03_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  97. 97.

    Ibid.

  98. 98.

    Judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2008-35-01 on 7 April 2008. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/2008-35-01_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  99. 99.

    Judgment of the Constitutional Court in case No. 2008-47-01 on 28 May 2009, para 15.2. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/2008-47-01_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  100. 100.

    See Lenz and Grill (1995), pp. 844–865.

  101. 101.

    Groussot et al. (2010), p. 36.

  102. 102.

    See Arts. 5.1 and 214 of the Civil Procedure Law (Civilprocesa likums); Arts. 104.1 and 273 of the Administrative Procedure Law; Art. 478 of the Criminal Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/advantagecms/LV/tulkojumi/meklet_dokumentus.html.

  103. 103.

    Criminal Procedure Law. http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Criminal_Procedure_Law.doc.

  104. 104.

    Judgment of the Court of Justice of the EU in joined cases C-74/95 and C-129/95 Criminal proceedings against X, 1996, ECR, p. I-6609.

  105. 105.

    See Bobek (2008), pp. 1612–1613.

  106. 106.

    As the case was registered in the Court of Justice of the EU in early January 2008, for statistical purposes usually it is attributed to the year 2008—see Ņesterova (2012), p. 6.

  107. 107.

    Judgments of the Court of Justice of the EU in case C-43/95 Delecta Aktiebolag and Ronny Forsberg, 1996, ECR, p. I-466 (in the context of the accession of Sweden) and in case C-122/96 Saldanha and MTS Securities Corporation, 1997, ECR, p. I-532 (in the context of the accession of Austria).

  108. 108.

    Judgment of the Court of Justice of the EU in case C-302/04 Ynos kft v. Janos Varga, 2006, ECR, p. I–371.

  109. 109.

    See Court of Justice of the EU. Annual report 2014 (2015), p. 116.

  110. 110.

    Court of Justice of the EU. Annual report 2014 (2015), Luxembourg, p. 118.

  111. 111.

    Broberg and Fenger (2010), p. 45.

  112. 112.

    Miqsik (2008), p. 120.

  113. 113.

    On Hungarian experience see Osztovits and Gobos (2014), pp. 223–240.

  114. 114.

    Deklarācija “Par Latvijas Republikas pievienošanos starptautisko tiesību dokumentiem cilvēktiesību jautājumos” (Declaration on Latvia’s accession to the international human rights documents). Ziņotājs, 21, 24.05.1990. http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=75668.

  115. 115.

    Latvijas Republikas likums “Par 1950.gada 4.novembra Eiropas Cilvēka tiesību un pamatbrīvību aizsardzības konvenciju un tās 1., 2., 4., 7. un 11.protokolu”. LV, 143/144(858/859), 13.06.1997. http://likumi.lv/ta/id/43857-par-1950-gada-4-novembra-eiropas-cilveka-tiesibu-un-pamatbrivibu-aizsardzibas-konvenciju-un-tas-1-2-4-7-un-11-protokolu.

  116. 116.

    Grozījumi Latvijas Republikas Satversmē (Amendments to the Constitution of the Republic of Latvia). LV, 308/312(1369/1373), 23.10.1998. https://www.vestnesis.lv/ta/id/50292-grozijumi-latvijas-republikas-satversme.

  117. 117.

    ECHR. Statistics on violations (2016), p. 1.

  118. 118.

    See judgments of the ECHR in case Meimanis v Latvia on 21 July 2015, Šantare and Labazņikovs v. Latvia on 31 March 2016, A, B and C v. Latvia on 31 March 2016.

  119. 119.

    More than 41% of the violations found by the Court have concerned Art. 6 of the Convention, whether on account of the fairness (17.63%) or the length of the proceedings (22.13%). The second violation most frequently found by the Court has concerned the right to liberty and security (Art. 5)—The ECHR. Overview 1959–2015 (2016), p. 6.

  120. 120.

    The ECHR. Overview 1959–2015 (2016), p. 7.

  121. 121.

    Grozījumi Operatīvās darbības likumā (Amendments in the Operational Activities Law). LV, 57(5629), 22.03.2016. http://likumi.lv/ta/id/281095-grozijumi-operativas-darbibas-likuma.

  122. 122.

    Judgment of the ECHR in Zikovs v. Latvia, Kibermanis v. Latvia.

  123. 123.

    For example, judgment of the ECHR in case Meimanis v. Latvia.

  124. 124.

    Judgments of the ECHR in cases Beiere v. Latvia, Raudevs v. Latvia.

  125. 125.

    See amendments in the Criminal Procedure Law, Arts. 283 and 595 –Grozījumi Kriminālprocesa likumā. LV, 113(5173), 11.06.2014. Availble at: http://likumi.lv/ta/id/266815-grozijumi-kriminalprocesa-likuma.

  126. 126.

    For example, Report to the Latvian Government on the visit to Latvia carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) from 12 to 17 September 2013 (2014), p. 5. Available at: http://www.cpt.coe.int/documents/lva/2014-05-inf-eng.pdf.

  127. 127.

    Bazjaks v Latvia, Kadikis v Latvia.

  128. 128.

    See amended Art. 77—Grozījumi Sodu izpildes kodeksā (Amendments in the Sentence Execution Code). LV, 124(5442), 30.06.2015. Available at: http://likumi.lv/ta/id/274970-grozijumi-latvijas-sodu-izpildes-kodeksa.

  129. 129.

    See, e.g., judgment of the Latvian Constitutional Court in case 2015-01-01, http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/2015-01-01_Spriedums.pdf.

  130. 130.

    Judgments of the Latvian Supreme Administrative Court in case SKA-0436-13. https://www.tiesas.lv/Media/Default/Page/AL_2901_raj_A-00923-13_43.pdf.

  131. 131.

    Judgement of the Constitutional Court in case No 2008-35-01 on 7 April 2009. http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/2008-35-01_Spriedums_ENG.pdf.

  132. 132.

    Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Latvia 1922. http://www.saeima.lv/en/legislation/constitution.

  133. 133.

    Dišlers (2004), p. 13.

  134. 134.

    Dišlers (1930), p. 110.

  135. 135.

    See also: Iļjanova (2011), pp. 367–429.

  136. 136.

    On the Constitutional Foundations of the State of Latvia and the Inviolable Core of the Constitution. Opinion of the Constitutional Law Commission. 17 September 2012. http://www.president.lv/images/modules/items/PDF/17092012_Viedoklis_2.pdf.

  137. 137.

    On the nature of the general principles of law and their application methodology see: Rezevska (2015).

  138. 138.

    On the Constitutional Foundations of the State of Latvia and the Inviolable Core of the Constitution. Opinion of the Constitutional Law Commission. 17 September 2012. http://www.president.lv/images/modules/items/PDF/17092012_Viedoklis_2.pdf, para. 385, 388.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., para. 390.

  140. 140.

    Ibid., para. 392.

  141. 141.

    Compare: McLachli (2006).

  142. 142.

    McLachli (2006).

  143. 143.

    Law on the Amendment to the Constitution. 19 June 2014. http://www.saeima.lv/en/legislation/constitution.

  144. 144.

    On the Constitutional Foundations of the State of Latvia and the Inviolable Core of the Constitution. Opinion of the Constitutional Law Commission. 17 September 2012. http://www.president.lv/images/modules/items/PDF/17092012_Viedoklis_2.pdf.

  145. 145.

    See, for example: TV kanālu proporcija – pilnīgi ačgārna. Saruna ar Satversmes tiesas tiesnesi Inetu Ziemeli (The Proportion of the TV Channels – Absolutely Amiss. Interview with the Justice of the Constitutional Court Ineta Ziemele). Latvijas Avīze 2016. http://www.la.lv/tv-kanalu-proporcija-pilnigi-acgarna/.

  146. 146.

    Ibid.

  147. 147.

    Compare: On the Legal Framework of the Public Electronic Mass Media in a Democratic State. Opinion of the Constitutional Law Commission. 24 May 2010. http://www.president.lv/images/modules/items/Viedoklis_KTK_sab_mediji_240510(1).pdf.

  148. 148.

    Compare: Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Fact Sheet No. 32. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Factsheet32EN.pdf.

  149. 149.

    Security Council Resolution 1456 (2003) on combating terrorism. http://www.refworld.org/docid/3f45dbdb0.html.

  150. 150.

    See, for example: Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights on 12 January 2016 (Application No 37138/14). http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng-press?i=001-160020#{"itemid":["001-160020"]}.

  151. 151.

    Compare: Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Fact Sheet No. 32. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Factsheet32EN.pdf.

  152. 152.

    Compare: Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Fact Sheet No. 32. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Factsheet32EN.pdf.

  153. 153.

    On Guidelines “Latvian Cybersecurity Strategy for 2014–2018” (Par pamatnostādnēm “Latvijas kiberdrošības stratēģija 2014.–2018. gadam”) The decision of the Cabinet of Ministers. 21 January 2014. LV 2014, No 16. http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=263912. Extensively on the issue: Ķinis (2015).

  154. 154.

    Ķinis (2015), p. 487.

  155. 155.

    Judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union in case No C-264/14 on 22 October 2015. http://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-264/14.

  156. 156.

    Directive 2006/112/CE du Conseil, du 28 novembre 2006, relative au système commun de taxe sur la valeur ajoutée (JO L347, p. 1). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:347:0001:0118:fr:PDF.

  157. 157.

    Bitcoin is a digital asset and a payment system. The system is peer-to-peer and transactions take place between users directly, without an intermediary. Bitcoin is often called the first cryptocurrency, and it is more correctly described as the first decentralised digital currency. Bitcoin is the largest of its kind in terms of total market value. Bitcoins are created as a reward for payment processing work in which users offer their computing power to verify and record payments into the public ledger. This activity is called mining and miners are rewarded with transaction fees and newly created bitcoins. Besides being obtained by mining, bitcoins can be exchanged for other currencies, products, and services. When sending bitcoins, users can pay an optional transaction fee to the miners. See more specific in: Espinoza (2014) Time to Bet on the Bitcoin? The Wall Street Journal, 22 September 2014. https://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charvey/Media/2014/bitcoin.pdf.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Law, University of Latvia, Raina blvd. 19, Riga, LV-1586, Latvia

    Arnis Buka, Irēna Kucina, Jānis Lazdiņš & Daiga Rezevska

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  1. Arnis Buka
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  2. Irēna Kucina
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  3. Jānis Lazdiņš
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  4. Daiga Rezevska
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  1. Tallinn Law School, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

    Tanel Kerikmäe

  2. Tallinn Law School, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

    Kristi Joamets

  3. Faculty of Law, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia

    Jānis Pleps

  4. Faculty of Law, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia

    Anita Rodiņa

  5. Law Faculty, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania

    Tomas Berkmanas

  6. Law Faculty, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania

    Edita Gruodytė

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Buka, A., Kucina, I., Lazdiņš, J., Rezevska, D. (2017). General Frameworks. In: Kerikmäe, T., Joamets, K., Pleps, J., Rodiņa, A., Berkmanas, T., Gruodytė, E. (eds) The Law of the Baltic States. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54478-6_4

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