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The Marine Barracks Bombing and a ‘Vigorous Self-Defense’

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US Foreign Policy and the Multinational Force in Lebanon

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Abstract

This chapter examines US responses to the 23 October 1983 US Marine Barracks bombing and its impact on US military strategy in Lebanon. It argues that the bombings placed the Reagan Administration under great domestic and congressional pressure to withdraw quickly and therefore find a credible, face-saving exit from the Lebanese crisis.

Multinational Force II, Phase Three (23 October to 28 December 1983)

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Notes

  1. 1.

    [Explosion: Situation Report as of 0900 hours local], 8:22am 23 October 1983, Cable #722799, CIA Archives, p.1.

  2. 2.

    Caspar Weinberger stated, ‘Beirut was an Absolutely Inevitable Outcome of Doing What We Did’, in ‘Interview with Caspar Weinberger’, September 2001.

  3. 3.

    Harakat al-Jihad al-Islami attracts much speculation. Academics link the organization directly to Hizbullah as a pseudonym for Hizbullah’s operations in Lebanon. Robin Wright, ‘Sacred Rage’, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), p.73; Marius Deeb, ‘Militant Islamic Movements in Lebanon: Origins, Social Basis, and Ideology’, Occasional Paper Series, Washington, Georgetown University, 1986, p.19; [UNTSO Summary of Beirut Incidents Special SITREP, Explosion in front of French MNF HQ], 10:10 pm 21 December 1983, Multinational Force in Beirut File, UNARMS, p.1.

  4. 4.

    [Report of the DOD Commission on Beirut International Airport Terrorist Act, October 23, 1983], 20 December 1983, Box 4 RRPL, pp.1–3; Matthew Levitt & David Schenker, ‘Who Was Imad Mughniyeh’, 14 February 2008, The Washington Institute, Policy #1340, p.1, Glenn Kessler, ‘Iran Must Pay $2.6 Billion for ’83 Attack’, 8 September 2007, Washington Post, p.2 & Ronald Reagan, ‘The Ronald Reagan Diaries’, (New York: Harper Collins, 2007), p.350.

  5. 5.

    ‘Interview with Caspar Weinberger’.

  6. 6.

    Otherwise known as the Progressive Socialist Party headed by Druze leaders Kamal Jumblatt and, later, Walid Jumblatt.

  7. 7.

    Ralph Hallenbeck, ‘Military Force as an Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy’, (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp.107–133.

  8. 8.

    Anthony Lewis, ‘Quagmire, Here We Come’, 21 September 1983, New York Times (hereafter NYT), p. A31 & ‘Excerpts from Administration Statements on U.S. Objectives in Lebanon’, 25 October 1983, NYT, p. A12.

  9. 9.

    ‘Connexion Iranienne estime-t-on a Washington: Reagan “plus determine que jamais” a maintenir les Etats-Unis au P.O.’, 24 October 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  10. 10.

    Ramesh Thakur, ‘International Peacekeeping, UN Authority and US Power’, 1987, p. 472; Agnes Korbani, ‘U.S. Intervention in Lebanon, 1958 and 1982: Presidential Decisionmaking’, (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1991), p.54, 99 & Richard Nelson, ‘The Multinational Force in Beirut’, in Anthony McDermott and Kjell Skjelsbaek, eds., The Multinational Force in Beirut 1982–1984, (Miami: Florida International University Press: 1991), pp.98–100.

  11. 11.

    Hallenbeck, pp. 67–80.

  12. 12.

    [Report of the DOD], pp.3–10.

  13. 13.

    Michael David Woodward, ‘Ronald Reagan: A Biography’, (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p.140.

  14. 14.

    ‘Le veritable enjeu: La Presence occidentale’, 24 October 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  15. 15.

    [Report of the DOD] pp.1–3.

  16. 16.

    ibid. pp.3–10.

  17. 17.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley, USMC], 31 October 1983, Senate Armed Services Committee, Box 4, RRPL, p.14.

  18. 18.

    [Lebanon], 10:00am, 29 December 1983, #746, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–2.

  19. 19.

    [Responding to the Lebanon Crisis], 23 October 1983, Box 91291, pp.1–2; [Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], 28 October 1983, Box 91291, p.1 & [Statement by the Principal Deputy Press Secretary to the President], 23 October 1983, Box 5, RRPL, p.1.

  20. 20.

    Hallenbeck, pp.162–163.

  21. 21.

    ibid . p.163.

  22. 22.

    [Responding to the Lebanon Crisis], pp.1–2.

  23. 23.

    [Regional Broadcasters Luncheon], 7:45 pm 24 October 1983, Box 5, RRPL, p.2.

  24. 24.

    [Remarks from the President in Q&A session with regional editors and broadcasters], 1:11 pm 24 October 1983, Box 5, RRPL, p.2.

  25. 25.

    Operation Urgent Fury was officially justified as the means to rescue and protect US civilians and non-combative personnel but was ultimately seen as a means to curb Cuban and Soviet influence in the Caribbean. Devised and directed by Shultz and Vessey, the military plans began on 20 October 1983, three days before the Beirut Barracks bombing. Ronald Cole, ‘Operation Urgent Fury’, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1997, pp.9–19.

  26. 26.

    [ARA News Items of October 28 1983], 6:15am, 29 October 1983, Cable #309269, State Department, pp. 1–3.

  27. 27.

    ibid. p.2.

  28. 28.

    Reagan, pp.350–351.

  29. 29.

    ibid . p.352.

  30. 30.

    ‘Les Americains debarquent sur ‘’ile de Grenade’, 26 October 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  31. 31.

    Reagan, ‘The Ronald Reagan Diaries’, p.352.

  32. 32.

    ‘La visite de Mitterand: Une reaffirmation spectaculaire de la presence Française’, 25 October 1983, L’OLJ, p.1 & Stephanie Pezard, ‘Cutting Losses or Holding Tight? Foreign Interventions, Terrorist Acts and Military Withdrawal’, Graduate Institute of International Studies Geneva, 28 February 2013, pp.7–10.

  33. 33.

    [Lebanon, International Situation; Multinational Force (MNF) in Lebanon], 4 December 1983, PREM 19/1076, UKNA, pp.1–2; Robert Booth, ‘National Archives: Reagan Blindsided Thatcher Over 1983 Grenada invasion’, The Guardian UK, 1 August 2013, p.1 & Cole, pp.2–12.

  34. 34.

    [Principal Deputy Press Secretary to the President], p.1.

  35. 35.

    Reagan, p.350; Michael Getler, ‘Iranians in Beirut May Have Had Advances Knowledge of Attack’, 25 October 1983, The Washington Post, p.13 & Bernard Gwertzman, ‘U.S. Said to Think Iran Had Key Role in Beirut Attacks’, 29 October 1983, NYT, p.1.

  36. 36.

    [ARA News Items of October 28 1983], p.1.

  37. 37.

    [Visit to Beirut, 25–26 October 1983], 2 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.3.

  38. 38.

    [Responding to the Lebanon Crisis], pp.1–2.

  39. 39.

    [Regional Broadcasters Luncheon], p.1.

  40. 40.

    [Report of the DOD], p.60.

  41. 41.

    ‘Reagan: un conflit pouvait aller jusqu’a la guerre mondiale’, 25 October 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  42. 42.

    An Act of Terrorism is defined as ‘the lawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a revolutionary organisation against individuals or property with the intention of coercing or intimidating governments or societies, often for political or ideological purposes’ – US Department of Defense Directive 2000.12.

  43. 43.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley], p.14.

  44. 44.

    The LAF protection of MNFII personnel had been guaranteed since September 1982. [Boutros to Dillon], 15 September 1982, pp.1–2.

  45. 45.

    [Report of the DOD], p.41.

  46. 46.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley], pp.1–11.

  47. 47.

    [Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], p.2.

  48. 48.

    ibid.

  49. 49.

    Steven Weisman, ‘Reagan predicts role till Beirut Stands or Falls’, 15 December 1983, NYT, p.1.

  50. 50.

    [Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], p.3.

  51. 51.

    Joseph Nye, ‘Soft Power and American Foreign Policy’, The Academy of Political Science, Vol. 119, No. 2, 2004, pp.255–270.

  52. 52.

    [Visit to Beirut], p.5.

  53. 53.

    ibid.

  54. 54.

    [NSDD Lebanon and the Middle East], 25 October 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.2.

  55. 55.

    [Report of the DOD], pp.95–99.

  56. 56.

    [Visit to Beirut], p.4.

  57. 57.

    Thomas Friedman, ‘Lebanese Await Geneva Talks’, 31 October 1983, NYT, p.1.

  58. 58.

    ‘“Entre un Liban phalangiste et la Syrie, j’ai choisi la Syrie” déclare M. Walid Joumblatt’, Le Monde, 3 October 1983.

  59. 59.

    US Ambassador Reginald Bartholomew replaced Robert Dillon on 22 October 1983.

  60. 60.

    [Rumsfeld Mission. Meeting with President Gemayel November 13], 21:08 pm, 14 November 1983, Cable #12671, Box 45, RRPL, pp.1–3.

  61. 61.

    Pia Christina Wood, ‘The Diplomacy of Peacekeeping: France and the Multinational Forces to Lebanon, 1982–84’, International Peacekeeping, 1998, p.33.

  62. 62.

    Suleiman Frangieh was President of Lebanon from 1970–1976. He was aligned with Syria and responsible for inviting the SAF into Lebanon under the 1976 Arab Deterrent Force.

  63. 63.

    Wood, pp.33–34.

  64. 64.

    [Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], pp.1–2.

  65. 65.

    [Our Strategy in Lebanon and the Middle East: Operational Issues], 17 October 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  66. 66.

    ibid. p.2.

  67. 67.

    Weisman, p.1.

  68. 68.

    ‘Apres le raide des avions Americains sur les position Syriennes dans la Montagne: Reagan hausse le ton: Nous frapper son de nouveau si nous sommes attaqués’, 5 December 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  69. 69.

    Howard Teicher was both the Director for the Near East and South Asia and Senior Director for Political Military Affairs on the NSC. [Draft NSDD on Lebanon and the Middle East], 26 October 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1

  70. 70.

    ‘Interview with Caspar Weinberger’.

  71. 71.

    Anthony Lewis, ‘Quagmire, Here We Come’, 21 September 1983, NYT, p. A31.

  72. 72.

    ‘Reagan: “Les jours de faiblesse sont revolus”’, 13 December 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  73. 73.

    [Report of the DOD], p.41.

  74. 74.

    Alain Brouillet, ‘LA seconde force multinationale à Beyrouth (24 september 1982–31 mars 1984), Annuaire Français de droit International, Vol. 31, 1985, p.158.

  75. 75.

    Brian L Zimbler, ‘Peacekeeping Without the UN: The Multinational Force in Lebanon and International Law’, Yale Journal of International Law, 1984–1985, pp.244–245.

  76. 76.

    [Report of the DOD], p.8.

  77. 77.

    ibid. p.38.

  78. 78.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley], p.11.

  79. 79.

    [Report of the DOD], p.59.

  80. 80.

    ibid. p.7.

  81. 81.

    ibid. p.37.

  82. 82.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley], p.1.

  83. 83.

    Luigi Caligaris, ‘Western peacekeeping in Lebanon: Lesson of the MNF’, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol.26 No.6, p.267.

  84. 84.

    [Strategy for Lebanon], 10 September 1983, Box 91291, RRPL. p.1.

  85. 85.

    [Remarks by General P.X. Kelley], p.4.

  86. 86.

    ibid. p.6.

  87. 87.

    [Terrorist Threat to Western Interests in Lebanon], 30 November 1983, Box 43, RRPL, p.4.

  88. 88.

    Général Coullon, ‘La force multilaterale d’interposition puis de sécuriteé á Beyrouth’, Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, No.168, October 1992, p.105.

  89. 89.

    [DOD Commission], p.39.

  90. 90.

    [General P.X. Kelley], p.7.

  91. 91.

    [DOD Commission], pp.52–53.

  92. 92.

    [General P.X. Kelley], p.6.

  93. 93.

    [DOD Commission], p.53.

  94. 94.

    [DOD Commission], pp.62–66 & [General P.X. Kelley], p.11.

  95. 95.

    [General P.X. Kelley], pp.5–6.

  96. 96.

    ibid. p.12.

  97. 97.

    [DOD Commission, 1983], p.45.

  98. 98.

    [Lebanon], 5 December 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  99. 99.

    [DOD Commission, 1983], p.8.

  100. 100.

    [General P.X. Kelley, USMC], pp.12–13.

  101. 101.

    [Countering Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Forces and Facilities in Lebanon], 22 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  102. 102.

    [Short term strategy for Lebanon], 3:21 pm 28 December 1983, Cable #366307, Box 45, RRPL, p.3.

  103. 103.

    [US Interests in the Middle East. Lebanon], 3:16 pm 28 December 1983, Cable #366305, Box 45, RRPL, p.5.

  104. 104.

    Zimbler, pp.244.

  105. 105.

    [Rumsfeld Mission. Meeting with President Gemayel November 13], 21:08 pm 14 November 1983, Cable #12671, Box 45, RRPL, p.4.

  106. 106.

    ibid. p.7.

  107. 107.

    Eric Roll, ‘La négociation de Genève achoppe à l’accord entre Israël et le Liban M. Gemayel refuse d’envisager l’abrogation exigée par l’opposition du texte signé le 17 mai par Jérusalem et Beyrouth’, Le Monde, 3 November 1983.

  108. 108.

    ibid. p.8.

  109. 109.

    Michael Malone, William Miller and Joseph Robben, ‘From presence to American intervention’, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol.28, No.5, pp.428–430.

  110. 110.

    On October 20 the US shipped 68 M-48 Tanks to Lebanon as a part of its capacity- building and modernization program with the LAF.

  111. 111.

    [Possible Levers on Syria], 4:26 pm 21 December 1983, Cable #27569, Box 45, RRPL, p.3.

  112. 112.

    Drummond Ayres, ‘U.S. Resupplies Lebanese Army as Truce Holds’, NYT, 21 October 1983, p.1.

  113. 113.

    [Memorandum, Boutros to Dillon], pp.1–2.

  114. 114.

    [MEA Brief], pp.1–2.

  115. 115.

    [US Middle East Policy], 4:05 pm, 7 December 1983, #570, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  116. 116.

    ‘Saudis ‘Not a Tool’, NYT, 12 May 1983, p.A5.

  117. 117.

    [Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], p.1.

  118. 118.

    [Terrorist Threat to Western Interests in Lebanon], 30 November 1983, Box 43, RRPL, p.6 & Thomas Friedman, ‘Lebanese Await Geneva Talks’, NYT, 31 October 1983, p.1.

  119. 119.

    [Iraq: Social and Political Factors Deter Religious Revival], NESA 83-10310, November 1983, CIA, pp.1–15.

  120. 120.

    ibid. p.3.

  121. 121.

    ibid . p.iii.

  122. 122.

    [Talking Points for Amb Rumsfeld’s Meeting with Tariq Aziz and Saddam Hussein], 10:22am 14 December 1983, Cable #262630, State Dept., pp.1–3.

  123. 123.

    [Moscow’s Tilt Toward Baghdad: The USSR and the War Between Iran and Iraq], 26 August 1983, CIASOV83-10145EX, CIA, pp.4–6, 17.

  124. 124.

    [Iran-Iraq War: Increased Threat to Persian Gulf Oil Exports], 13 October 1983, SNIE 34/36.2-83, CIA, pp.2–11.

  125. 125.

    Yair Evron, ‘War and Intervention in Lebanon: The Israeli-Syrian deterrence dialogue’, (Kent: Croom Helm, 1987), pp.160–163.

  126. 126.

    Bernard Guetta’, ‘Le déploiement de forces américain au large des côtes libanaises s’accompagne d’un net rapprochement avec Israël’, Le Monde, 8 November 1983.

  127. 127.

    [NSDD 111 Next Steps Toward Progress in Lebanon and the Middle East], p.3.

  128. 128.

    ibid. pp.1–2.

  129. 129.

    Flora Lewis, ‘US-Israeli Reversal’, 1 November 1983, NYT, p.27 & Noam Chomsky, ‘Middle East Terrorism and the American Ideological System’, Race & Class, Vol.1, 1986, pp.XXVIII–XXV.

  130. 130.

    [Visit of Prime Minister Shamir], 26 November 1983, RRPL p.1.

  131. 131.

    [Wednesday November 30 1983], 30 November 1983, Doc #C05182966, State Dept., p.2.

  132. 132.

    Reagan, p.404.

  133. 133.

    [Issues for Discussion/Decision at NSPG], 3 January 1984, Box 45, RRPL, p.1.

  134. 134.

    [NSDD: Lebanon and the Middle East], 28 October 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  135. 135.

    [Short term strategy for Lebanon], p.4.

  136. 136.

    [Rumsfeld Mission], p.4.

  137. 137.

    [NSDD Lebanon and the Middle East], 25 October 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.2.

  138. 138.

    Leslie Gelb, ‘Shultz Backs Military Force, Now Key Voice’, NYT, 8 November 1983, p.1.

  139. 139.

    [NSDD-111 on Lebanon and the Middle East], 4 November 1983, p.1 & [NSDD-111 on Lebanon and the Middle East], 7 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  140. 140.

    [Authorization for US Marines in Lebanon], S.HRG 98-528, Congressional Library, pp.1–44.

  141. 141.

    ibid. pp.3–5.

  142. 142.

    ‘Il governo accetta la proposta Reagan di un vertice della «multinazionale»: Italiani laggiù soltano per la pace’, La Stampa, 25 October 1983.

  143. 143.

    [UNTSO Summary of Beirut Incidents Special SITREP, Explosion in front of French MNF HQ], 10:10 pm, 21 December 1983, UNARMS, pp.1–2.

  144. 144.

    [Lebanon Report], 14 December 1983, Box CF1176, RRPL, pp.1–2.

  145. 145.

    [Countering Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Forces and Facilities in Lebanon], 22 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  146. 146.

    [Thatcher/Mitterrand Meeting], 6 December 1983, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–3.

  147. 147.

    [Security in Lebanon], 20 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.1.

  148. 148.

    [Lebanon: President Gemayel’s Visit], 1:50 pm, 12 December 1983, #713, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  149. 149.

    [Security in Lebanon], 25 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, pp.1–2.

  150. 150.

    ibid. p.3.

  151. 151.

    The Weinberger Doctrine, announced by Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger on 28 November 1984, outlined a six-test system on the use of military force. Specifically, the Doctrine stated that the use of force should only be implemented when there is an overwhelming probability of victory, significant national interest and a clearly defined mandate. Cannon, pp.353–355.

  152. 152.

    David Twining, ‘The Weinberger Doctrine and the Use of Force in the Contemporary Era’, Small Wars & Insurgencies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1990, pp.97–117 & Gail Yoshitani, ‘National Power and Military Force: The Origins of the Weinberger Doctrine, 1980–1984’ (Durham: Duke University, 2008), pp.156–204.

  153. 153.

    ‘Interview with Caspar Weinberger’.

  154. 154.

    [Draft NSDD on Lebanon], 3 December 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.2.

  155. 155.

    [Wednesday 21 December 1983], 21 December 1983, #C05182977, State Dept., p.1.

  156. 156.

    [Security in Lebanon], 25 November 1983, Box 91291, RRPL, p.3.

  157. 157.

    [Terrorist Threat to Western Interests in Lebanon], 30 November 1983, Box 43, RRPL, p.1.

  158. 158.

    ibid. p.2.

  159. 159.

    ibid. p.6.

  160. 160.

    ‘Iranian Bids Lebanese Recruit Suicide Squads’, NYT, 31 January 1984, p.1.

  161. 161.

    [Lebanon/MNF], p.4.

  162. 162.

    [Draft NSDD on Lebanon], p.2.

  163. 163.

    [NSDD 117, Lebanon], p.1.

  164. 164.

    ibid. & [Our Strategy in Lebanon and the Middle East], p.3.

  165. 165.

    Drew Middleton, ‘U.S. Flights over Lebanon: Their Value Called into Question’, NYT, 10 December 1983, p.1.

  166. 166.

    [UNTSO Summary of Beirut Incidents Special SITREP, Explosion in front of French MNF HQ], 10:10 pm 21 December 1983, UNARMS, p.2.

  167. 167.

    [Lebanon/MNF], p.4.

  168. 168.

    [Syria/MNF], 9:50am 10 December 1983, #406, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  169. 169.

    [Lebanon: the Multi-National Force], 9 December 1983, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  170. 170.

    ibid. pp.1–2.

  171. 171.

    [MNF Foreign Ministers Meeting], 12:50 pm, 8 December 1983, #344, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  172. 172.

    [Lebanon], 5 December 1983, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–2.

  173. 173.

    David Farber, ‘Taken Hostage: The Iran Hostage Crisis and America’s First Encounter with Radical Islam’, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), pp.165–170.

  174. 174.

    James Harper, ‘The Middle East, Oil and the Third World’, in John Carroll & George Herring, eds., Modern American Diplomacy, (Oxford: SR Books, 2004), p.259.

  175. 175.

    [Illustrative initiatives which could get the attention of Syria, as an aid in the negotiation process], 10:25am 14 December 1983, Cable #270331, Box 45, RRPL, p.2.

  176. 176.

    ibid. pp.2–4.

  177. 177.

    ‘Interview with Caspar Weinberger’.

  178. 178.

    Reagan, pp.400–410.

  179. 179.

    Yoshitani, pp.165–173.

  180. 180.

    [Lebanon. Milestones], 3:19 pm 28 December 1983, Cable #366306, Box 45, RRPL, p.2.

  181. 181.

    ibid. pp.1–2.

  182. 182.

    [Short term strategy for Lebanon], 3:21 pm 28 December 1983, Cable #366307, Box 45, RRPL, p.3.

  183. 183.

    ibid .

  184. 184.

    [General Kelley’s Optimism], 9:22 pm 10 December 1983, Cable #3442135, Box 45, RRPL, p.1.

  185. 185.

    ibid. p.2.

  186. 186.

    [Selected Media Reports for UNIFIL Contingents Wed 21 Dec], 1:03 pm 21 December 1983, UNARMS, p.1.

  187. 187.

    [UNTSO Summary of Beirut Incidents Special SITREP, Explosion in front of French MNF HQ], 10:10 pm 21 December 1983, UNARMS, pp.1–2.

  188. 188.

    [Rumsfeld Mission. Approach to MNF Capitals], 7:40am 13 January 1984, Box 45, RRPL, p.3.

  189. 189.

    [Possible Levers on Syria], 4:26 pm 21 December 1983, Cable #27569, Box 45, RRPL, p.4.

  190. 190.

    [Lebanon], pp.1–2.

    1[Lebanon: The Next Steps], p.4.

  191. 191.

    [Disquiet in Britain/MNF], pp.1–2 & [Lebanon/ House of Commons], 5 December 1983, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  192. 192.

    Wood, p.33.

  193. 193.

    JP Lagellier, ‘Israël juge “inconcevable” que l’ONU facilite l’évacuation des “terroristes”’, Le Monde, 10 December 1983 & [UNIFIL Reduction], 25 October 1983, Cable #2450, S-0356-0037-07, UNARMS, p.1 & Evron, pp.160–163.

  194. 194.

    [Restrictions of Movements by US Forces], 2:37 pm 12 December 1983, Cable #UNTSO2918, UNARMS, pp.1–2.

  195. 195.

    [Short-term strategy for Lebanon], p.5.

  196. 196.

    [Lebanon], 9 February 1984, PREM19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  197. 197.

    ‘Le rapprochement avec Damas commence a se concretiser’, 17 December 1983, L’OLJ, p.1.

  198. 198.

    [Thatcher/Mitterrand Meeting], 6 December 1983, PREM19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–3.

  199. 199.

    [Lebanon], 19 December 1983, PREM19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–2.

  200. 200.

    [Discussions with Cheysson on the Lebanon/MNF], 2:40 pm 19 December 1983, #4543, PREM19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–2.

  201. 201.

    [Italy/Lebanon], 11:10am 17 December 1983, #688, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.1.

  202. 202.

    [Thatcher and Gemayel at No. 10 Downing Street], 12:15 pm 14 December 1983, PREM19/1077, UKNA, pp.1–4.

  203. 203.

    [Lebanon Milestones], pp.2–6.

  204. 204.

    ibid. p.6.

  205. 205.

    Thomas Friedman, ‘Gemayel Notifies Foes He Will End Pact with Israel’, NYT, 17 February 1984, p.1.

  206. 206.

    ‘Weinberger: 15 Paesi hanno rifiutato di entrare nella forza multinazionale’, La Stampa, 23 December 1983, p.4.

  207. 207.

    ‘M. Weinberger a exposé à M. Hernu la politique militaire des États-Unis au Liban’, Le Monde, 6 December 1983.

  208. 208.

    [Lebanon Milestones], p.8.

  209. 209.

    [DOD Commission], p.39.

  210. 210.

    ibid. pp.38–40.

  211. 211.

    Gideon Rose defines neoclassical realism as where the ‘scope and ambition of a country’s foreign policy is driven first and foremost by its place in the international system and specifically by its relative material power capabilities…relative material power establishes the basic parameters of a country’s foreign policy…it is their [political leaders] perceptions of relative power that matter not simply relative quantities of physical resources or forces in being.’ Gideon Rose, ‘Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy’, World Politics, Vol. 51, No.1, 1998, pp.145–147; Colin Dueck, ‘Neoclassical Realism and the National Interest: Presidents, Domestic Politics and Major Military Interventions’, in Steven Lobell, Norrin Ripsman & Jeffery Taliaferro, eds., Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign policy, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp.139–150.

  212. 212.

    [Lebanon], 10:00am, 29 December 1983, #746, PREM 19/1077, UKNA, p.2.

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    Corrin Varady

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Varady, C. (2017). The Marine Barracks Bombing and a ‘Vigorous Self-Defense’. In: US Foreign Policy and the Multinational Force in Lebanon. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53973-7_7

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