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A Negated Body

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Femininity, Masculinity, and Sexuality in Morocco and Hollywood

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Abstract

Androcentric writings of the body produce the feminine, the masculine, the sex hierarchy and sexuality as male power. The immediate consequence of this construct is the appropriation of the bodies of people born with a vagina. This appropriation involves an extensive collective labor deployed among individuals and various social groups. Through indoctrination, propaganda, and various forms of violence, this collective work inculcates appropriate bodily behaviors for women, glorifies feminine beauty, urges women to embellish their bodies, establishes feminine virginity as an imperative social norm, imposes limits on female space, isolates women, limits women’s freedom of movement, monitors women’s movements, and encourages the segregation of the sexes. This process of dehumanization violates women’s personal freedom, their bodily integrity, and their freedom of movement and expression.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Fatiha Boucetta, Anissa captive (Casablanca: EDDIF, 1991), 118–119.

  2. 2.

    Leila, Mariée de force (Paris: J’ai lu, 2004), 103.

  3. 3.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens (Paris: Plon, 2009), 13–14.

  4. 4.

    Boucetta, op. cit., 112.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., 112 and 118–119.

  6. 6.

    Leila, op. cit., 102.

  7. 7.

    Ibid.

  8. 8.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens, op. cit., 57–58.

  9. 9.

    Abdelhak Serhane, Messaouda (Paris: Seuil, 1983), 14. One finds a similar testimony in Tahr Ben Jelloun, Harrouda (Paris: Denoël, 1973), 13:

    Seeing a sex was the preoccupation of our childhood. Not just any sex. Not an innocent and hairless one. The sex of a woman. One that had lived and endured. A tired one. The one that haunted our first dreams and our first bold attempts. The sex we name on a deserted street and draw in the palm of our hand. The one we swear by. The one we dream of doing and of reinventing. The streets of our neighborhood know it well. Tamed by the walls and given a place in the sky. We ejaculate words onto the effigy of that sex. We caress the moist smell we imagine. We learn pain and we baptize blood in warm hands. They celebrated our passage to manhood early.

  10. 10.

    Driss Chraïbi, Lu, vu, entendu (Paris: Denoël, 1998), 147.

  11. 11.

    Fadéla Sebti, Moi Mireille, lorsque j’étais Yasmina (Casablanca: Le FENNEC, 1995), 90.

  12. 12.

    Siham Benchekroun, Amoureuses (Casablanca: Empreintes, 2012), 17.

  13. 13.

    Mohamed Hmoudane, Le ciel, Hassan II et Maman France (Paris: La Différence, 2010), 118.

  14. 14.

    Abdelhak Serhane, L’homme qui descend des montagnes (Paris: Seuil, 2009), 43.

  15. 15.

    Hmoudane, op. cit., 118–119.

  16. 16.

    Khalid Lahsika, Femmes mariées expulsées de leur foyer et mères célibataires, diagnostic rapide et participatif sur des femmes en situation difficile (Maroc: Centre Batha, 2008); Haut-commissariat au plan/Royaume du Maroc, Enquête nationale sur la prévalence de la violence à l’égard des femmes 2009 (Rabat: el-Maârifal-Jadida, 2012); Association démocratique des femmes du Maroc, L’image de la femme et les violences symboliques à son égard au Maroc, rapport annuel 1999 (Casablanca: Al-Anbaa, 2000); Nawal Saadawi argues that, throughout history, humanity’s most repressive laws have been those established for the purpose of controlling female sexuality. To this day, women in countries worldwide are murdered for simply expressing their sexuality, in al-Maraa wa al-jins wa al-ounthahiya al-asl (Woman and sex, and the female and the origin) (Beyrouth: Moassassa al-arabia lid-dirassate wa n-nachr, 1974), 72.

  17. 17.

    The High Commissioner for Morocco estimates that 62.8% of women are victims of violence. In Haut-commissariat au plan/Royaume du Maroc, Enquête nationale sur la prévalence de la violence à l’égard des femmes 2009, op. cit., 96.

  18. 18.

    Bahaa Trabelsi, Une femme tout simplement (Casablanca: EDDIF, 1995), 110.

  19. 19.

    Abdessamad Dialmy, op. cit., 93–94.

  20. 20.

    Serhane, Messaouda, op. cit., 90–91.

  21. 21.

    Mériam Cheikh, Catherine Miller et al., « Les mots d’amour: dire le sentiment et la sexualité au Maroc », Estudios de Dialectología Norte africana y Andalusí (EDNA) 13 (2010): 173–199.

  22. 22.

    Nedjma, L’amande, (Paris: Plon, 2004), 107 and 111.

  23. 23.

    Benchekroun, Amoureuses, op. cit., 17.

  24. 24.

    Jean Zaganiaris, « Ce que montrer le sexe au Maroc veut dire, les représentations de la sexualité dans le cinéma marocain », Mouvements 74 (2013/2): 170–179, DOI: 10.391/mouv.074.0170; Jean Zaganiaris, « Entre libéralisation de la sexualité et exercice de la violence symbolique, ambivalence des masculinités dans la littérature marocaine de langue française », Cahiers d’études africaines 209–210 (2013): 367–385; Jean Zaganiaris « La question Queer au Maroc, identités sexuées et transgenre au sein de la littérature marocaine de langue française », Confluences Méditerranée 80 (2012/1): 145–161, DOI: 10.3917/come.080.0145; Jean Zaganiaris, Queer Morocco, sexualités, genres et (trans)identités dans la littérature marocaine (Maroc: Des ailes sur un tracteur, 2014); Abdessamad Dialmy, “Premarital Female Sexuality in Morocco”, Al-Raida 20.99 (2002–2003): 74- 83; Mériam Cheikh, « Les filles qui sortent, les filles qui se font: attitudes transgressives pour conduites exemplaires », in Marges, normes et éthique, marges et marginalités au Maroc, Céline Aufauvre, Karine Bennafla et Montserrat Emperador-Badimon dir. (Paris: Harmattan, 2011), 36–37.

  25. 25.

    Abdelrhafour Elaraki, Alternaria (Casablanca: Éditions Le FENNEC, 1998), 147.

  26. 26.

    Abdelrhafour Elaraki, Le cafard à l’orange (Casablanca: EDDIF, 1992), 154–155.

  27. 27.

    Benchekroun, Amoureuses, op. cit., 46 and 48.

  28. 28.

    Mohamed Leftah, Le jour de Vénus (Paris: Éditions de la Différence, 2009), 53.

  29. 29.

    Lyne Tywa (pseudonym for Rita al-Khayat), La Liaison (Paris: Harmattan, 1994), 96–97.

  30. 30.

    Dialmy, Critique de la masculinité au Maroc, op. cit., 98.

  31. 31.

    Ibid.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., 100.

  33. 33.

    Trabelsi, op. cit., 38–39.

  34. 34.

    Judith Butler analyzes the feminization of Islamist prisoners accused of terrorism while undergoing torture and other forms of degrading treatment at Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib, in “Sexual Politics, Torture, and Secular Time,” The British Journal of Sociology 59 (2008): 16.

  35. 35.

    Elaraki, Le cafard à l’orange, op. cit., 159.

  36. 36.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens, op. cit., 74.

  37. 37.

    Benchekroun, Amoureuses, op. cit., 13.

  38. 38.

    Tywa, op. cit., 100.

  39. 39.

    Mohamed Nedali, Triste jeunesse (La Tour d’Aigues: Éditions de l’aube, 2012), 228.

  40. 40.

    Ibid., 229–230.

  41. 41.

    Ibid., 234.

  42. 42.

    Leftah, Le jour de Vénus, op. cit., 51–52.

  43. 43.

    Tywa, op. cit, 98.

  44. 44.

    Kadri et al., “Mental Health of Moroccan Women, A Sexual Perspective,” Journal of Affective Disorders 102 (2007): 201.

  45. 45.

    Sebti, op. cit., 90.

  46. 46.

    Tywa, op. cit., 54–55.

  47. 47.

    Mohamed Choukri, trans. Tahar Ben Jelloun, Le pain nu (Paris: Maspero, 1980), 69.

  48. 48.

    Yasmine Chami-Kettani, Cérémonie (Arles: Actes Sud, 1999), 77–78.

  49. 49.

    Youssouf Amine Elalamy, Paris mon bled (Casablanca: EDDIF, 2002), 26.

  50. 50.

    Mohamed Leftah, Hawa ou le chant du quartier Boussbir (Paris: La Différence, 2010), 79 and 83.

  51. 51.

    Taking this sort of hyper-masculinization as example, Joseph Massad explains that the definition of homosexuality is not universal. Massad fails to see that sex between a hyper-masculine and another man is not considered homosexual because, according to sociopolitical discourse about the body, penetration infuses the man performing the act with manliness and feminizes the subjected man. In Joseph Massad, “Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World”, Public Culture 14 (2002): 361–384.

  52. 52.

    Leftah, Hawa ou le chant du quartier Boussbir, op. cit., 59.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., 62.

  54. 54.

    Hmoudane, op. cit., 77. The official investigation of the High Commissioner for the Kingdom of Morocco indicates that 32.9% of women were abused in public spaces during the 12 months preceding the study. In Haut-commissariat au plan/Royaume du Maroc, Enquête nationale sur la prévalence de la violence à l’égard des femmes 2009, op. cit., 113. See also Aicha Akalay and Hassan Hamdani, « Enquête-témoigagne. Viol, brisons la loi du silence », Telquel Online, April 25, 2012, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://telquel.ma/2012/04/25/enquete-temoignages-viol-brisons-la-loi-du-silence_429_2442

  55. 55.

    Hmoudane, op. cit., 77.

  56. 56.

    The activist Oussama Housne spoke of the sexual violence he was subjected to in an online video posted before he was arrested, in Amnesty International, Maroc: des militants emprisonnés pour avoir dénoncé des actes de torture doivent être immédiatement libérés, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.amnesty.fr/Presse/Communiques-de-presse/Maroc-Des-militants-emprisonnes-pour-avoir-denonce-des-actes-de-torture-doivent-etre-immediatement-l-12347. Similarly, during their trials, the activists Laila Nassimi, Nour Essalam Kartachi, Samir Bradelly, Abderrahman Assal, Tarek Rouchdi, and Youssef Oubella denounced the sexual abuse they experienced in Human Rights Watch, “Morocco: Contested Confessions Used to Imprison Protesters”, September 17, 2012, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/09/17/morocco-contested-confessions-used-imprison-protesters

  57. 57.

    « Maroc Ifni: Le Samedi Noir (2) Témoignages », accessed August 17, 2016: http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6a6pw_maroc-ifni-le-samedi-noir-2-temoign_news#.UUY3iaWonyE. On power and rape culture in Morocco, see also Don Conway-Long, “Sexisme and Rape Culture in Moroccan Social Discourse”, Journal of Men’s Studies 10.3 (Spring 2002): 361–371.

  58. 58.

    Fouâd Harit, « Maroc: une femme condamnée à 10 ans de prison pour avoir tué son violeur », Afrik.com, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.afrik.com/maroc-une-femme-condamnee-a-10-ans-de-prison-pour-avoir-tue-son-violeur

  59. 59.

    Butler, op. cit., 15–17.

  60. 60.

    Allan G. Johnson, The Gender Knot, Unraveling Our Patriarchal Legacy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005), 149.

  61. 61.

    Mohamed Loakira, À corps perdu (Rabat: Marsam, 2008), 16.

  62. 62.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens, op. cit., 112.

  63. 63.

    Take for example Robin Thicke’s Blurred Lines.

  64. 64.

    Anissa Benzakour-Chami, Femme idéale (Casablanca: Le FENNEC, 1992), 16.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., 15–16.

  66. 66.

    Hayat Chemsi, La cruche cassée (Castelnau-le-Lez: Climats, 2001), 117.

  67. 67.

    Several studies report on the violence experienced by women on their wedding nights. See Damiya Benkhouya, « Al-jassad al-onthaouiaou al-jassad al-marssoudlilalam » (The Female Body, or the Body made for Pain), in Le corps au féminin, Aicha Belarbi dir. (Casablanca: Le FENNEC, 1991), 17–23; Soumaya Naamane-Guessous, Au-delà de toute pudeur, la sexualité féminine au Maroc, op. cit., 179–180; Isabelle Charpentier, « Virginité des filles et rapports sociaux de sexe dans quelques récits d’écrivaines marocaines contemporaines », Genre, sexualité & société 3 (Printemps 2010), http://gss.revues.org/1413; DOI: 10.4000/gss.1413.

  68. 68.

    Noufissa Sbaï, L’enfant endormi (Rabat: EDINO, 1987), 44–45.

  69. 69.

    Souad el Alaoui Ben Hachem, J’ai mal en moi (Casablanca: EDDIF, 2004), 53.

  70. 70.

    Naamane-Guessous, Au-delà de toute pudeur, op. cit., 170.

  71. 71.

    Kadri et al., “Mental Health of Moroccan Women, a Sexual Perspective”, op. cit., 200.

  72. 72.

    Dialmy, Logement, sexualité et Islam, op. cit., 180–181.

  73. 73.

    Ben Hachem, op. cit., 53.

  74. 74.

    Dialmy, “Premarital Female Sexuality in Morocco”, op. cit.

  75. 75.

    Sbaï, op. cit., 45.

  76. 76.

    Lamia Berrada-Berca, Kant et la petite robe rouge (Ciboure: La Cheminante, 2011), 21.

  77. 77.

    Siham Benchekroun, Oser vivre (Casablanca: Empreintes, 2004), 135. A number of studies address the problem of marital rape. See Lahsika, op. cit.,16; Naamane-Guessous, Au-delà de toute pudeur, op. cit., 208–209.

  78. 78.

    Youssef Fadel, Un joli chat blanc marche derrière moi, trad. Philippe Vigreux (Paris: Sindbad, 2014), 41.

  79. 79.

    Article 488 of the Penal code details the penalties for a rape that results in a woman losing her virginity; articles 494–496 of the same code establish the special status of married women. See the publication of the Association démocratique des femmes du Maroc, Les discriminations à l’égard des femmes dans la législation pénale marocaine (Casablanca: Le FENNEC, 2001), 32–33.

  80. 80.

    After being forced to marry her rapist at the age of 15, Amina el-Filali committed suicide in 2012. In Zakia Salime, “Arab Revolutions: Legible, Illegible Bodies”, Compartive Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 35.3 (2015): 530. See also Isabelle Mandraud, « Le suicide qui bouleverse la société marocaine », Le Monde, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/03/24/le-suicide-qui-bouleverse-la-societe-marocaine_1675191_3212.html

  81. 81.

    For studies on prostitution in Morocco see Fatima al-Zahra Azruwil, al- Bagha, aw al-jasad al-mustabah (Prostitution or the Accessible Body) (Dar Bayda: Ifriqiya ac-charq: 2000); Nasima Moujoud & Dolorès Pourette, « Traite de femmes migrantes, domesticité et prostitution, à propos de migrations interne et externe », Cahiers d’études africaines 179–180 (2005/3): 1093–1121; Younès Alami et al., « Maroc: le business du sexe », Le journal-hebdo no.196 from 19 to 26 February, 2005.

  82. 82.

    Lahsika, op. cit., 15.

  83. 83.

    Mériam Cheikh, « Échanges sexuels monétarisés, femmes et féminités au Maroc: une autonomie ambivalente », Autrepart 49 (2009): 173–188. DOI: 10.3917/autr.049.0173; Cheikh, « Les filles qui sortent, les filles qui se font: attitudes transgressives pour conduites exemplaires », op. cit.

  84. 84.

    Sebti, op. cit., 32–33.

  85. 85.

    Articles 236 and 238 of the Family code confirm that fathers are the legal guardians of children.

  86. 86.

    Berrada-Berca, op. cit., 27.

  87. 87.

    Soumaya Naamane-Guessous and Chakib Guessous, Grossesses de la honte: étude sur les filles-mères et leurs enfants au Maroc (Casablanca: Afrique Orient, 2011). I should mention here the work of Aïcha Ech-chenna, president of la Solidarité féminine, an association that provides assistance to single mothers.

  88. 88.

    Lahsika, op. cit., 38.

  89. 89.

    Article 161 of the Family code.

  90. 90.

    Zakia Salime, “New Feminism as “Personal Revolutions”: Micro-Rebellious Bodies.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 40.1 (2014): 14–20; « Une jeune mère célibataire s’immole par le feu », 23/02/201, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.france24.com/fr/20110223-maroc-jeune-femme-celibataire-immole-feu-suicidelogement-social-souk-sebt-fadoua-laroui

  91. 91.

    « Mustafa ramid: les enfants nés hors mariage sont des “wlad l7ram” », October 10, 2013, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.bladi.info/threads/mustafa-ramid-enfants-nes-mariage.364650/

  92. 92.

    Benchekroun, Oser vivre, op. cit., 106; we find a similar testimony in Boucetta, op. cit., 227–228.

  93. 93.

    Dialmy, Critique de la masculinité au Maroc, op. cit., 173.

  94. 94.

    Articles 449–455 of the Penal code.

  95. 95.

    Article 453 of the Penal code.

  96. 96.

    Ibid.

  97. 97.

    Andréane Gagnon, « De l’information sexuelle à l’éducation à la sexualité au Maroc », Femmes marginalisées et insertion sociale, Travaux de colloque international 10, 11, 12 March 2010, Fatima Sadiqi dir. (Fès: Centre Isis, 2010), 63. The work of doctor Chafik Chraïbi, president of the Association de lutte contre l’avortement clandestine, should be mentioned here.

  98. 98.

    Sbaï, op. cit., 53.

  99. 99.

    Ghizlaine Chraïbi, Un amour fractal (Aurillac: Juste pour lire, 2013), 56–57.

  100. 100.

    The fourth paragraph of article 54 of the Family code. This provision is based on verse 2:233. We will see later the role played by phallocentric, misogynistic, and patriarchal interpretations of religion in legal writings of the feminine and the masculine.

  101. 101.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens, op. cit., 25–26.

  102. 102.

    Naamane-Guessous, Au-delà de toute pudeur, op. cit., 23.

  103. 103.

    « Maroc: le Premier ministre préfère la femme au foyer », last accessed August 17,2016, http://www.africa1.com/spip.php?article45055

  104. 104.

    Nedjma, La traversée des sens, op. cit., 25.

  105. 105.

    Chraïbi, Lu, vu, entendu, op. cit., 25.

  106. 106.

    Leila, op. cit., 18.

  107. 107.

    Leila, op. cit., 21.

  108. 108.

    Trabelsi, op. cit., 36 and 39.

  109. 109.

    Claude Benarafa et Aïcha Sijelmassi « L’adolescente au carrefour des institutions », in Être Jeune fille, Belarbi dir., op. cit., 71–87; Aicha Belarbi, « La Préparation à la vie de couple », Couples en question, Aicha Belarbi dir. (Casablanca: Le FENNEC, 1990), 69–84.

  110. 110.

    Boucetta, op. cit., 33.

  111. 111.

    Ibid., 30–31.

  112. 112.

    Tahar Ben Jelloun, Les yeux baissées (Paris: Seuil, 1991), 91.

  113. 113.

    Boucetta, op. cit., 141.

  114. 114.

    Leila, op. cit., 21.

  115. 115.

    Cheikh, Miller et al., « Les mots d’amour: dire le sentiment et la sexualité au Maroc », op. cit.; Maria Daïf and Driss Bennani, « Les Marocains et l’amour », Telquel from 28 February 2005, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.lemag.ma/Les-marocains-et-l-amour_a2640.html

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Ibid.

  118. 118.

    Cheikh, « Les filles qui sortent, les filles qui se font: attitudes transgressives pour conduites exemplaires », op. cit.; Cheikh, « Échanges sexuels monétarisés, femmes et féminités au Maroc: une autonomie ambivalente », op. cit.

  119. 119.

    Daïf et Bennani, op. cit.

  120. 120.

    Siham Benchekroun, Amoureuses (Casablanca: Empreintes, 2012), 13.

  121. 121.

    « Baisers de Nador: les adolescents s’en sortent avec un avertissement », posted 6 December 2013, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://www.yabiladi.com/articles/details/21493/baisers-nador-adolescents-s-en-sortent.html

  122. 122.

    Ibid.

  123. 123.

    Rachida Yacoubi, Je dénonce ! (Paris: Paris-Méditerranée, 2002), 53.

  124. 124.

    The abusive interpretations of articles 483 and 490 from the Penal code for example.

  125. 125.

    Damiya Benkhouya, « Qissat houb morahiqah » (A Teenage Love Story), in Être Jeune fille, Belarbi dir., op. cit., 59–70.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., 66–69.

  127. 127.

    Benchekroun, Oser vivre, op. cit., 10 & 11.

  128. 128.

    Tywa, op. cit., 87.

  129. 129.

    Soumaya Naamane-Guessous, Printemps et automne sexuels, puberté, ménopause, andropause au Maroc, op. cit., 276.

  130. 130.

    The sociologist Fatima Mernissi has outlined the discrepancies that exist between the reality of women’s lives and male conceptions of women’s worlds. This male viewpoint reduces women’s struggles to mere longings to be loved and desired by men who, in turn, have the means to monetize women. In Mernissi, Le Maroc raconté par ses femmes (Rabat: SMER, 1986).

  131. 131.

    Benchekroun, Oser vivre, op. cit., 19.

  132. 132.

    Aziza Belouas, « Une stratégie nationale pour booster l’industrie cosmétique », La Vie éco, posted 9 April 2013, last accessed August 17, 2016, http://lavieeco.com/news/economie/une-strategie-nationale-pour-booster-lindustrie-cosmetique-25124.html

  133. 133.

    Chemsi, op. cit., 125.

  134. 134.

    Bouchta el Attar, Les proverbes marocains (Casablanca: Imprimerie Najah el Jadida, 1992), 80.

  135. 135.

    Naamane-Guessous, Printemps et automne sexuels, puberté, ménopause, andropause au Maroc, op. cit., 275.

  136. 136.

    Ibid., 276.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., 276.

  138. 138.

    Ibid., 277.

  139. 139.

    Chraïbi, Lu, vu, entendu, op. cit., 11.

  140. 140.

    In a chapter devoted to the concept of freedom of expression, Moshe Gershovich lists the journals and magazines subject to censure in independent Morocco, but failed to mention the censure of the women’s magazines Kalima and Thamania mars, revealing pointedly the masculine worldview that drives much of the scholarship pertaining to this subject. In “The `New Press’ and Free Speech under Mohammed VI”, in Contemporary Morocco, State, Politics and Society under Mohammed VI, Bruce Maddy-Weitzman and Daniel Zisenwine eds. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 93–108.

  141. 141.

    Loubna H. Skalli, Through a Local Prism, Gender, Globalization, and Identity in Moroccan Women’s Magazines (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006), 94–99.

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  1. Department of Politics and International Studies, Bishop’s University, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada

    Osire Glacier

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Glacier, O. (2017). A Negated Body. In: Femininity, Masculinity, and Sexuality in Morocco and Hollywood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53285-1_2

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