Abstract
Looking at South Africa and Ghana, this chapter compares two cases of relative success in regard to democratization and the establishment of civilian control in sub-Saharan Africa. While both countries have created comprehensive frameworks for civilian control after their democratization in the 1990s, the setup and performance of oversight institutions differ to some extent. Institutions in South Africa are somewhat stronger and are more democratically balanced than in Ghana, where the military enjoys a certain amount of autonomy. However, both military organizations can be regarded as rather effective, despite financial, personal, and technical constraints. The chapter further focuses on the countries respective involvement in peacekeeping activities on the continent. By comparing their performance, conceptual shortcomings about the meaning of military effectiveness become obvious.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The insurgence was driven by various opposition parties and their aligned guerrilla forces, the most important of which were “Umkhonto we Sizwe” (MK) of the African National Congress (ANC) the Azanian People’s Liberation Army (APLA) of the Pan-African Congress (PAC). Another group was the Kwa Zulu Self Protection Force (KZSPF) of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) (Licklider 2014, 122; Sisk 1995, 61–64).
- 2.
Furthermore, as some authors argue, the willingness of the military to accept change was influenced by the fact that after years of international sanctions and budget cuts, most equipment was outdated and the SANDF was eager to replace it (Ferreira and Liebenberg 2004, 61–63).
- 3.
Problems consisted of inadequate and incomplete registers of the personnel from the non-statutory forces, deficient facilities, and disagreements, which in some cases led to protests among recruits (Cawthra 2003, 42; Licklider 2014, 125f). These were further aggravated by racial tensions, which in some instances led to outbreaks of violence (Mashike 2007, 613–17; Heinecken 2005a, 84).
- 4.
- 5.
Allegations of corruption involved military and civilian actors, among them high-ranking figures such as Jacob Zuma, Thabo Mbeki, and then-Defense Minister Joe Modise (Griffiths 2008, 238). Initially, strong efforts by parliament and the judiciary to investigate the matter were watered down through the mobilization of party loyalties in various institutions that were trying to shed light on the matter. Though some actors were convicted of corruption—Toni Yengeni, chairperson of the JSCD, among others—the matter has not been conclusively resolved yet (Southall 2013, 158–64).
- 6.
Other more recent scandals affecting the armed forces involve the illegal use of a military air base by a family with close ties to Zuma, fuelling rumors of a larger complex of corruption (BBC 2015).
- 7.
With this, South Africa does rank among the top-ten troop contributing countries for UN missions, but is behind smaller countries such as Ghana (Coning and Lotze 2013, 378).
- 8.
- 9.
Such as the National Office for the Coordination of Peacekeeping Missions in the Department for International Relations and Cooperation (Coning and Lotze 2013, 380f).
- 10.
Such as the Border Management Agency (PMG 2015a).
- 11.
Of particular concern was the 64th Regiment, which was founded by Rawlings and served as a presidential “protective shield”. It was better-equipped, did not come under military command, and was not subordinated to civilian control. Rawlings used the 64th Regiment to repress political opponents. It was the main culprit for the governmental offenses that happened during Rawlings’ rule (Agyeman-Duah 2002, 9f).
- 12.
In 2006, the institution of a competing Minister of National Security was established, whose role and mandate, however, have not yet been clarified (Aning and Lartey 2009, 5).
- 13.
For example, in 2012, the Defense Budget committee made three inspections for monitoring the budget spending and met over 70 times (Ministry of Defense 2012, 9).
- 14.
A 2006 survey showed that MPs know the least about military activities in comparison to other executing state agencies. More than 70% of the respondents stated that they receive information about the military first by the media (Wyjad 2006).
- 15.
Another source reports an overall strength of the GAF of 10,000 and a deployment of 25% to peacekeeping operations in 2010 (Aning and Aubyn 2013, 289).
- 16.
Allegations about an unfair and corrupt selection process exist but were not confirmed so far (Aning and Aubyn 2013, 283).
References
Addison, M. K. (2002). Preventing military intervention in West Africa: A case study of Ghana. Master Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey.
Africa, S. (2011). The transformation of the South African security sector: Lessons and challenges. Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of the Armed Forces (Policy Paper 33).
Agyeman-Duah, B. (2002). Civil-military relations in Ghana’s fourth republic. Critical Perspectives, 9.
Aning, K., & Aubyn, F. (2013). Ghana. In A. J. Bellamy & P. D. Williams (Eds.), Providing peacekeepers: The politics, challenges, and future of United Nations peacekeeping contributions (pp. 269–290). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Aning, K., & Lartey, E. (2009). Parliamentary oversight of the security sector: Lessons from Ghana. New York: Centre on International Cooperation.
Aning, K., & Sjöberg, A. (2011). Ghana. In M. Gaanderse & K. Valasek (Eds.), The security sector and gender in West Africa: A survey of police, defence, justice and penal services in ECOWAS states (pp. 105–118). Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF).
Ansah-Koi, K. (2007). The security agencies and national security in a decade of liberalism. In K. Boafo-Arthur (Ed.), Ghana: One decade of the liberal state (pp. 188–205). London: Zed Books/Codesria Books.
Appiagyei-Atua, K. (2015). Access to information and national security in Ghana: Drawing the balance. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/275889545_ACCESS_TO_INFORMATION_AND_NATIONAL_SECURITY_IN_GHANA_DRAWING_THE_BALANCE
ASDR. (2006). Workshop report on parliamentary oversight of the security sector. Report of the workshop on “exploring the scope of parliamentary power and competency in the security sector”. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.africansecuritynetwork.org/site/components/com_medialibrary/emedia/Parliamentary%20Training%20on%20the%20Policy%20Statement%20for%20the%20Review%20of%20Legislation.pdf
Atintande, M. (2012). Ghana armed forces—International peacekeeping as a tool of diplomacy. Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon.
Aubyn, F., & Aning, K. (2015). Peacekeeping contributor profile: Ghana. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.providingforpeacekeeping.org/2014/04/03/contributor-profile-ghana/
BBC. (2015, January 21). Guptagate: The scandal South Africa’s Zuma can’t shake. Accessed March 25, 2016, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-30923275
BICC. (2006). Security sector reform in Ghana. Accessed November 14, 2016, from https://www.bicc.de/ssr_gtz/pdf/ghana.pdf
Blame, K. K. (2014). Evaluating the procurement processes in the Ghana armed forces. Master Thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.
Boafo-Arthur, K. (2007a). A decade of liberalism in perspective. In K. Boafo-Arthur (Ed.), Ghana: One decade of the liberal state (pp. 1–21). London: Zed Books/Codesria Books.
Boafo-Arthur, K. (2007b). The liberal Ghanaian state and foreign policy: The dynamics of change and continuity. In K. Boafo-Arthur (Ed.), Ghana: One decade of the liberal state (pp. 227–251). London: Zed Books/Codesria Books.
Bratton, M., & van de Walle, N. (1997). Democratic experiments in Africa: Regime transitions in comparative perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bruneau, T., & Matei, F. (2013). Introduction. In T. Bruneau & F. Matei (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of civil-military relations (pp. 1–10). London: Routledge.
Burger, J. (2012, January 24). Concerns raised about the involvement of the military in policing operations in South Africa. ISS Today. Accessed October 29, 2015, from https://www.issafrica.org/iss-today/concerns-raised-about-the-involvement-of-the-military-in-policing-operations-in-south-africa
Cawthra, G. (1999). From ‘total strategy’ to ‘human security’: The making of South Africa’s defence policy 1990–98. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI Working Papers 8/1999).
Cawthra, G. (2003). Security transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. In G. Cawthra & R. Luckham (Eds.), Governing insecurity: Democratic control of military and security establishments in transitional democracies (pp. 31–56). London: Zed Books.
Cawthra, G. (2008). Collaborative regional security and mutual defence: SADC in comparative perspective. Politikon, 35(2), 159–176.
Chabal, P., & Daloz, J.-P. (1999). Africa works: Disorder as political instrument. Oxford: James Currey/International African Institute.
Cilliers, J. (2014a). South African futures 2030: How Bafana Bafana made Mandela Magic. ISS Paper (253). Accessed September 8, 2015, from https://www.issafrica.org/uploads/Paper253.pdf
Cilliers, J. (2014b). The 2014 South African defence review: Rebuilding after years of abuse, neglect and decay. Institute for Security Studies, Policy Brief 56. Accessed September 4, 2015, from https://www.issafrica.org/uploads/PolBrief56.pdf
Cilliers, J., & Malan, M. (1996). A regional peacekeeping role for South Africa: Pressures, problems and prognosis. African Security Review, 5(3), 21–31.
Coelho, J. P. B. (2013). Southern African maritime security: Problems and prospects. In A. van Nieuwkerk & K. Hofman (Eds.), Southern African security review 2013 (pp. 120–133). Maputo: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
Coning, C., & Lotze, W. (2013). South Africa. In A. J. Bellamy & P. D. Williams (Eds.), Providing peacekeepers: The politics, challenges, and future of United Nations peacekeeping contributions (pp. 376–395). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Coning, C., Lotze, W., & Neethling, T. (2015). Peacekeeping contributor profile: South Africa. Accessed December 13, 2015, from http://www.providingforpeacekeeping.org/2014/04/03/contributor-profile-south-africa/
Crawford, G. (2004). Democratisation in Ghana: Assessing the impact of political aid (1993–2003). POLIS Working Paper, 8. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.afrimap.org/english/images/documents/POLIS_Ghana_Democ_Aid.pdf
Danso-Ankrah, J. (2012). Military/media dichotomy and its impact on military operations in West Africa. Master Thesis, Army Command and General Staff College, Kansas.
Defenceweb. (2015a). Army reserve is the major contributor to Op Corona. Accessed October 31, 2015, from http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=41114&catid=74&Itemid=30
Defenceweb. (2015b, September 8). Operation fiela forges ahead, but without soldiers. Accessed October 31, 2015, from http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=40616:operation-fiela-forges-ahead-but-without-soldiers&catid=3:Civil%20Security&Itemid=113
DoD. (1996). White paper on defence. Department of Defence. Accessed October 18, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/WhitePaperonDef/whitepaper%20on%20defence1996.pdf
DoD. (1998). South African defence review. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/defencereview/defence%20review1998.pdf
DoD. (2006). Annual report 2005–06. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/AnnualReport2006.pdf
DoD. (2007). Annual report 2006–07. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/AnnualReport2007.pdf
DoD. (2008). Annual report 2007–08. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/AnnualReport2008.pdf
DoD. (2009). Annual report 2008–09. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/DOD%20Annual%20Report%202008-2009%20LR.pdf
DoD. (2010). Annual report 2009–10. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/Annual%20Report%200910f.pdf
DoD. (2011). Annual Report 2010–11. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/annrep%201011%20net.pdf
DoD. (2012a). Annual report 2011–12. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/AnnualReport1112n.pdf
DoD. (2012b). First military Ombudsman sworn in. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/news/2012/05/military_ombudsman.htm
DoD. (2013). Annual report 2012–13. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/Annual%20Report%202013%20Final.pdf
DoD. (2014a). Annual Report 2013–14. Department of Defence. Accessed March 24, 2016, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/DoD%20Annual%20Report%202014.pdf
DoD. (2014b). South African defence review 2014. Department of Defence. Accessed September 8, 2015, from https://www.issafrica.org/uploads/Paper253.pdf
DoD. (2015a). Annual report 2014–15. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/annualreports/DoD%202014-15%20RGB.pdf
DoD. (2015b). South African national defence force transformation status. Department of Defence. Accessed October 16, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/20980/
Erdmann, G., & Engel, U. (2007). Neopatrimonialism reconsidered: Critical review and elaboration of an elusive concept. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 45(1), 95–119.
Essays UK. (2015). The changing face of internal security threats in Ghana. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/the-changing-face-internal-security-threats-ghana.php
Esterhuyse, A. (2013). The leadership factor in South African military culture. Defence Studies, 13(2), 135–151.
Esterhuyse, A. (2015a). Skype interview with Abel Esterhuyse, Associate Professor at the Faculty of Military Science at Stellenbosch University, 12 November 2015, South Africa.
Esterhuyse, A. (2015b). Skype interview with Abel Esterhuyse, Associate Professor at the Faculty of Military Science at Stellenbosch University, 23 November 2015, South Africa.
Esterhuyse, A., & Heinecken, L. (2015). The Clausewitzian trinity: Reassessing the South African military’s relationship with its polity and society. Journal for Contemporary History, 40(2), 71–95.
Fabricius, P. (2014, November 27). Is the force intervention brigade neutral?. ISS Today. Accessed October 18, 2015, from https://www.issafrica.org/iss-today/is-the-force-intervention-brigade-neutral
Ferreira, R. (2000). The democratization of the South African national defence force. In G. Kümmel & W. von Bredow (Eds.), Civil-military relations in an age of turbulence: Armed forces and the problem of democratic control (pp. 53–72). Strausberg: Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut der Bundeswehr.
Ferreira, R., & Henk, D. (2008). “Operationalizing” human security in South Africa. Armed Forces & Society, 35(3), 501–525.
Ferreira, R., & Liebenberg, I. (2004). Civil-military relations and arms procurement in South Africa: 1994–2002. Society in Transition, 35(1), 61–86.
Frankel, P. (2000). Soldiers in a storm: The armed forces in South Africa’s democratic transition. Boulder: Westview Press.
Frempong, A. (2007). Political conflict and elite consensus in the liberal state. In K. Boafo-Arthur (Ed.), Ghana: One decade of the liberal state (pp. 128–165). London: Zed Books/Codesria Books.
Friedmann, S. (1995). South Africa: Divided in a special way. In L. J. Diamond, J. J. Linz, & S. M. Lipset (Eds.), Politics in developing countries: Comparative experiences with democracy (pp. 531–582). Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
Griffiths, R. (1995). South African civil-military relations in transition: Issues and influences. Armed Forces & Society, 21(3), 395–410.
Griffiths, R. (2008). Parliamentary oversight of defense in South Africa. In R. Stapenhurst, R. Pelizzo, D. Olson, & L. V. Trapp (Eds.), Legislative oversight and budgeting. A world perspective (pp. 229–242). Washington, DC: World Bank Institute.
Gyimah-Boadi, E. (1997). The challenges ahead. Journal of Democracy, 8(2), 78–91.
Handley, A., & Mills, G. (2001). Working Paper 2: From military coups to multiparty elections: The Ghanaian military-civil transition. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20011100_cru_working_paper_2.pdf
Heinecken, L. (1998). Social equality versus combat effectiveness: An institutional challenge for the military. African Security Review, 7(6), 3–16.
Heinecken, L. (2005a). South Africa’s armed forces in transition: Adapting to the new strategic and political environment. Society in Transition, 36(1), 74–96.
Heinecken, L. (2005b). Defence, democracy, and South Africa’s civil-military gap. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 33(1), 119–140.
Heinecken, L., & Ferreira, R. (2012a). ‘Fighting for peace’: South Africa’s role in peace operations in Africa (Part I). African Security Review, 21(2), 20–35.
Heinecken, L., & Ferreira, R. (2012b). ‘Fighting for peace’: The experiences of South African military personnel in peace operations in Africa (Part II). African Security Review, 21(2), 36–49.
Heitman, H. (2013). The battle of Bangui: The untold inside story. Johannesburg: Parktown Publishers.
Hendricks, C., & Musavengana, T. (2010). The security sector in Southern Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.
Hutchful, E. (2002). Ghana’s adjustment experience: The paradox of reform. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
Hutchful, E. (2003). Pulling back from the Brink: Ghana’s experience. In G. Cawthra & R. Luckham (Eds.), Governing insecurity: Democratic control of military and security establishments in transitional democracies (pp. 78–101). London: Zed Books.
Hutchful, E. (2006). Ghana. In W. Omitoogun & E. Hutchful (Eds.), Budgeting for the military sector in Africa: The processes and mechanisms of control (pp. 72–99). Oxford: Oxford University Press/SIPRI.
Hutchful, E., & Bathily, A. (1998). The military and militarism in Africa. Dakar: Codesria.
Le Roux, L. (2006). South Africa. In W. Omitoogun & E. Hutchful (Eds.), Budgeting for the military sector in Africa: The processes and mechanisms of control (pp. 197–225). Oxford: Oxford University Press/SIPRI.
Licklider, R. (2014). South Africa. In R. Licklider (Ed.), New armies from old: Merging competing military forces after civil wars (pp. 119–136). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Lotshwao, K. (2009). The lack of internal party democracy in the African national congress: A threat to the consolidation of democracy in South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 35(4), 901–914.
Louw, G. M., & Esterhuyse, A. (2014a). The South African military in transition: Part 2—From strategic culture to strategic reality? Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 42(2), 27–53.
Louw, G. M., & Esterhuyse, A. (2014b). The South African military in transition: Part 1—From strategy formulation to strategy formation. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 42(2), 1–26.
Luckham, R. (1998). Transition to democracy and control over Ghana’s military and security establishments. In K. A. Ninsin (Ed.), Ghana: Transition to democracy. Codesria: Dakar.
Mandrup, T. (2009). South Africa and the SADC stand-by force. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 37(2), 1–24.
Mashike, L. (2007). ‘Blacks can win everything, but the army’: The ‘transformation’ of the South African military between 1994 and 2004. Journal of Southern African Studies, 33(3), 601–618.
Ministry of Defense. (2012). Ghana ministry of defence. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/pbb/1%20GHANA%20MINISTRY%20OF%20DEFENCE.pdf
Montesh, M., & Basdeo, V. (2012). The role of the South African national defence force in policing. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 40(1), 71–94.
Nathan, L. (2013). Synopsis of community of insecurity: SADC’s struggle for peace and security in Southern Africa. African Security Review, 22(3), 181–189.
Neethling, T. (2013). Considerations on defence thinking in Post-1994 South Africa with special reference to post-conflict reconstruction and development. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 40(3), 472–500.
Nzewi, O. (2015). The Renaissance factor in South Africa and the changing landscape of African regional governance (1999–2008). International Journal of African Renaissance Studies—Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity, 10(1), 25–46.
Oquaye, M. (1995). The Ghanaian elections of 1992: A dissenting view. African Affairs, 94(375), 259–275.
Oquaye, M. (2000). The process of democratisation in contemporary Ghana. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 38(3), 53–78.
Ouédraogo, E. (2014). Advancing military professionalism in Africa. Research Paper, 6. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ARP-6-EN.pdf
Piombo, J. (2013). Civil-military relations in an emerging democracy. In T. C. Bruneau & F. C. Matei (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of civil-military relations (pp. 255–274). New York: Routledge.
PMG. (2008). Department of defence annual report (Day 2). Accessed October 30, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/9769/
PMG. (2010). Border control: Briefing by chief of joint operations, South African National Defence Force (SANDF). Accessed November 1, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/11206/
PMG. (2012). Defence review 2012 consultative document: Overview by defence review committee. Cape Town. Accessed October 4, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/14355/
PMG. (2013a, April 3). Defence minister on Central African Republic SA soldier deployment. Accessed October 17, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/15658/
PMG. (2013b). Proposed amendments to special pensions act; regulations for military veterans. PMG. Accessed October 17, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/16741/
PMG. (2013c). Report of the portfolio committee on defence and military veterans on its oversight visits to selected South African air force bases in Western Cape, Limpopo, Kwazulu-Natal and free state provinces; and site visit to selected Armscor Research and Development facilities. Accessed October 30, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/tabled-committee-report/1661/
PMG. (2015a). Border management agency bill 2015: Publication of the draft bill 2015. Accessed November 10, 2016, from http://pmg-assets.s3-website-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/150806draftbordermanagement agencybill.pdf
PMG. (2015b). Defence and military veterans/National assembly committee. PMG. Accessed October 17, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee/87/
PMG. (2015c). Defence/Joint (NA + NCOP) Committee. Accessed October 17, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/committee/85/
PMG. (2015d). Tabled committee reports. Committee for defence and military veterans. Accessed October 30, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/search/?filter%5Bcommittee%5D=87&q=report&filter%5Btype%5D=tabled_committee_report
PMG. (2015e). Tabled Committee Reports. Defence. Accessed October 30, 2015, from https://pmg.org.za/search/?q=report&filter%5Bstart_date%5D=&filter%5Bend_date%5D=&filter%5Btype%5D=tabled_committee_report&filter%5Bcommittee%5D=85
Republic of South Africa. (1993). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 200 of 1993. Accessed October 16, 2015, from http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/constitution-republic-south-africa-act-200-1993
Republic of South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Accessed October 17, 2015, from http://www.constitutionalcourt.org.za/site/constitution/english-web/index.html
Republic of South Africa. (2002). Defence Act 42 of 2002. Accessed December 10, 2015, from http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/acts/New%20Defence%20Act%2042%20of%202002.pdf
Saunders, C. (2013). Military intervention in conflict situations in Africa: Thoughts on South Africa’s role. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 35(2), 152–156.
Schmidt, S. (1996). Südafrika: Demokratisierung als Prozeß der Verfassungsgebung? In W. Merkel (Ed.), Systemwechsel 2: Die Institutionalisierung der Demokratie (pp. 341–380). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Seegers, A. (1996). The military in the making of modern South Africa. London: Tauris Academic Studies.
Siko, J. (2012). The right place at the right time, or the right person in the right place? African Security Review, 21(2), 74–87.
SIPRI. (2016). SIPRI military expenditure database. Accessed January 26, 2016, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/milex_database
Sisk, T. D. (1995). Democratization in South Africa: The elusive social contract. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Solomon, H. (2010). South Africa in Africa: A case of high expectations for peace. South African Journal of International Affairs, 17(2), 131–147.
Southall, R. (2013). Liberation movements in power: Party & state in Southern Africa. Woodbridge: James Currey.
Sylvester, J. (2011). Parliamentary oversight of defence: South Africa in the democratic era. Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency (pildat). Accessed November 10, 2016, from http://www.pildat.org/Publications/publication/CMR/ParliamentaryOversightofDefence-SouthAfricaintheDemocraticEra.pdf
Sylvester, J., & Seegers, A. (2008). South Africa’s strategic arms package: A critical analysis. Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 36(1), 52–77.
Tettey, W. (2003). The mass media, political expression and democratic transition. In W. Tettey, K. P. Puplampu, & B. Berman (Eds.), Critical perspectives in politics and socio-economic development in Ghana (pp. 83–107). Leiden: Brill Academic Publication.
Tieku, T. (2004). Explaining the clash and accommodation of interests of major actors in the creation of the African union. African Affairs, 103(411), 249–267.
UN Information Centre. (2009). Ghana marks the international day of United Nations peacekeepers. Accessed December 14, 2015, from http://unic.un.org/imu/recentActivities/post/2009/05/29/Ghana-marks-the-International-Day-of-United-Nations-Peacekeepers.aspx
van Nieuwkerk, A. (2012). South Africa and peacekeeping in Africa. African Security, 5(1), 44–62.
Vines, A. (2010). South Africa’s politics of peace and security in Africa. South African Journal of International Affairs, 17(1), 53–63.
Vrey, F. (2004). Paradigm shifts, South African defence policy and the South African national defence force: From here to where? Scientia Militaria—South African Journal of Military Studies, 32(2), 89–118.
Williams, R. (2006). South African guerilla armies: The impact of guerilla armies on the creation of South Africa’s armed forces. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.
Williams, P. (2014). Reflections on the evolving African peace and security architecture. African Security, 7(3), 147–162.
Wyjad, K. (2006). 2006 Ghana parliamentary leadership survey—Report. Accessed November 23, 2015, from http://www4.carleton.ca/cifp/app/serve.php/1189.pdf
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Parth, AM., Schneider, S. (2017). Civilian Control and Military Effectiveness in South Africa and Ghana. In: Croissant, A., Kuehn, D. (eds) Reforming Civil-Military Relations in New Democracies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53189-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53189-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-53188-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-53189-2
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)