Abstract
The concept of lajjA is developed by (i) examining dictionary meanings, synonyms, and antonyms of the word in sanskrit and hindi, and (ii) analyzing its usage in two popular scriptural texts, the bhagavadgItA and drugA saptazatI. Following this, its use in literature is examined in kAmAyanI, a modern hindi mahAkAvya or epic. Further, the use of lajjA in daily communication and proverbs is examined. This multi-method approach resulted in a thick-description of the concept, showing that lajjA has both internal and external aspects and synthesizes guilt and shame, which have been viewed as distinct and non-overlapping constructs in the western literature. Further, lajjA emerges as an important virtue that guides human behavior. The belief that there are guilt-cultures and shame-cultures is challenged, and implications of this concept for global psychology are discussed.
Harvard-Kyoto protocol for transliteration for devanAgarI is used for all sanskrit and hindi words and names, and the first letters of names are not capitalized. All non-English words are italicized.
अ a आ A इ i ई I उ u ऊ U ए e ऐ ai ओ o औ au ऋṛ R ॠṝ RR ऌ lR ॡ lRR अं M अः H क ka ख kha ग ga घ kha ङ Ga च ca छ cha ज ja झ jha ञ Ja ट Ta ठ Tha ड Da ढ Dha ण Na त ta थ tha द da ध dha न na प pa फ pha ब ba भ bha म ma य ya र ra ल la व va श za ष Sa स sa ह ha
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Notes
- 1.
lalitAsahasranAma presents 1000 names of devI, and the number refers to that list.
- 2.
The analysis was done in nepAlI and bengAlI also, which further supported the findings. These are not included here due to page limitation.
- 3.
Verse 16.1: abhayM sattvasaMzuddhirjJanayogavyavasthitiH, dAnaM damazca yajJazca svAdhyAyastapa Arjavam; verse 16.2: ahiMsA satyamakrodhastyAgaH zAntirapaizunam, dayAbhuteSvaloluptvaM mArdavaM hrIracApalaM; verse 16.3: tejaH kSamA dhRtiH zaucamadroho nAtimAnita, bhavanti sampadaM daivImabhijAtasya bhArata.
- 4.
manas in sanskrit or mana in hindi is the center for cognition, affect, and behavior (Bhawuk 2008, 2011), and, therefore, it is difficult to translate it in English. Mind is a widely used translation, which only captures the cognitive function of manas, but not the affective and behavioral functions. Therefore, I use manas in my writing, and use “manas or mind” from time to time to remind the readers of the translation issue.
- 5.
Verse 16.4: dambho darpo’atimAnazca krodhaH pAruSyameva ca, ajJanaM cAbhijAtasya pArtha sampadamAsurIm.
- 6.
Other meanings of tejaH are: energetic, inspiring respect, dignified, impatience, fierceness, fiery energy, energetic opposition, ardor, vital power, spirit, the sharp edge of a knife, tip of flame, glow, glare, splendor, brilliance, light, fire, and spiritual power.
- 7.
Other meanings of dhrIti are: holding, seizing, keeping, supporting, firmness, constancy, resolution, will, and command.
- 8.
Other meanings of zauca are: cleanness, purity, purification, purity of mind, integrity, and honesty.
- 9.
The antonym of droha is adroha. Other meanings of droha are: injury, mischief, harm, perfidy, treachery, wrong, and offense.
- 10.
mAna means consideration, regard, respect, and honor; atimAna means excessive regard; nAtimAna is the antonym of atimAna.
- 11.
Verse 4.17: karmaNo hyapi boddhavyaM boddhavyaM ca vikarmaNaH, akarmaNazca bodhavyaM gahanA karmaNo gatiH—as it is difficult to understand the nature of karma, it is important to understand what action is, what inaction is, and what forbidden action is.
- 12.
Verse 3.35: zreyAnsvadharmo viguNaH pardharmAtsvanuSThitAt, svadharme nidhanaM zreyaH pardharmo bhayAvahaH—one should perform one’s svadharma or prescribed duties even if it is not attractive, for it is better to suffer doing ones’ prescribed duties than to switch to others’ attractive duties or what is prescribed for others. A person working in an organization often thinks in terms of likes and dislikes. If one is not happy working on an assigned project, the person is likely to consider it unattractive, distasteful, not satisfactory, or not fitting one’s career goal. One suffers while doing such a project or job. One often finds the project assigned to others more attractive. It is advisable to speak to one’s superior about the assignments, duties, or projects before they are assigned, but once a project is assigned, one must perform to the best of one’s ability like it is one’s svadharma, without paying attention to what others are assigned. This is the essence of this verse.
- 13.
Verse 16.23: yaH zAstravidhimutsRjya vartate kAmakArataH, na sa siddhimavApnoti na sukhaM na parAM gatim—a person who abandons the ways of the zAstras or scriptures and follows the way of desires does not find happiness or achieve success in either the material world or the one beyond.
- 14.
Verse 16.24: tasmAcchAstraM pramANaM te kAryAkAryavyavasthitau, jJatvA zAstravidhAnoktaM karma kartumihArhasi—therefore, one should perform actions in the world knowing the way of the scriptures, what is to be done and what is not to be done.
- 15.
Verse 17.24: tasmAdomityudAhRtya yajJadAnatapaH kriyAH, pravartante vidhAnoktAH satataM brahmavAdinAm—those who pursue the brahman, or are the repositories and communicators of the sacred knowledge, begin all sacrifices, charity, spiritual austerity, and actions by uttering om.
Verse, 17.25: tadityanabhisaMdhAya phalaM yajJatapaHkriyAH, dAnakriyAzca vividhAH kriyante mokSakAGkSibhiH—those who want liberation should pursue yajJa, tapaH, dAn, and actions without aiming at the fruit.
Verse 17.27: yajJe tapasidAne ca sthitiH saditi cocyate, karma caiva tadarthIyaM sadityevAbhidhIyate—sat or the absolute truth is situated in sacrifices, charities, spiritual austerity, and activities.
- 16.
Verse 18.3: tyAjyaM doSavadityeke karma prAhurmanISiNaH, yajJadAntapaHkarma na tyAjyamiti cApare—some wise people say that all karma cause bondage and so they should be given up, whereas others say that yajJa, dAna, tapaH, and karma guided by the zAstras should not be given up.
Verse 18.5: yajJadAnatapaHkarma na tyAjyaM kAryameva tat, yajJo dAnaM tapazcaiva pAvanAni manISiNAm—sacrifice, charities, and austerities help purify the manas of the wise ones, and, therefore, they should not be given up.
- 17.
Verse 2.2: kutastvA kazmalamidaM viSame samupasthitam, anAryajuSTamasvargyamakIrtikaramarjuna—where do you get this bad idea in this difficult time that does not behoove noble warriors, would lead to loss of heaven, and would cause infamy. Verse 2.3: klaibyaM mA sma gamaH pArtha naitattvayyupapadyate, kSudraM hRdayadaurbalyaM tyaktvottiSTha parantapa—it does not behoove you, a master of austerities, to yield to unmanliness; so get over your faint heartedness and stand up to fight.
- 18.
Verse 2.31: svadharmamapi cAvekSya na vikampitumarhasi, dharmyAddhi yuddhAcchreyo’nyat-kSatriyasya na vidyate—considering your natural social duties also you should not vacillate, for there is nothing better for a warrior than to be a part of a fair war. Verse 2.32: yadRcchayA copapannaM svarga-dvAramapAvRtam, sukhinaH kSatriyAH pArtha labhante yuddhamIdRzam—warriors are happy to be in a battle like this since it readily opens the gates of heaven for them. Verse 2.33: atha cettvamimaM dharmyaM saGgrAmaM na kariSyasi, tataH svadharmaM kIrtiM ca hitvA pApamavApsyasi—if you do not engage in this battle for justice, you will be forsaking your natural social duties, be infamous, and incur sin. Verse 2.34: akIrtiM cApi bhUtAni kathayiSyanti te’vyayAm, sambhAvitasya cAkIrtirmaraNAdatiricyate—people will endlessly talk about your infamy, and infamy is worse than death for noble people. Verse 2.35: bhayAdraNAduparataM maMsyante tvAM mahArathAH, yeSAM ca tvaM bahumato bhUtvA yAsyasi lAghavam—not only the great warriors would consider that you quit the war out of fear, but also those who respect you as a warrior would hold you in contempt. Verse 2.36: avAcyavAdAMzca bahUnvadiSyanti tavAhitAH, nindantastava sAmarthyaM tato duHkhataram nu kim—what could be more painful than your enemies putting you down and talking ill about you? Verse 2.37: hato vA prApsyasi svargaM jitvA vA bhokSyase mahIm, tasmAduttiSTha kaunteya yuddhAya kRtanizcayaH—fall in the battle and go to heaven or win the war and enjoy the kingdom; resolve and stand up to fight.
- 19.
durgAsaptazatI Verse 1:54: tvam svAhA tvam svadhA tvam hi vaSaTkAraH svarAtmikA, sudhA tvamakSare nitye tridhA mAtrAtmikA sthitA. Verse 1.55: ardhamAtrAsthitA nityA yAnuccAryA vizeSataH, tvameva sandhyA sAvitri tvam devi janani parA.
- 20.
According to atharvaveda, devI is both zUnya and azUnya, Anand and anAnand, vijJana and avijJana, brahman and abrahman, veda and aveda, vidyA and avidyA, aja and anaja, and, therefore, beyond any duality (see zrIdurgAsaptazatI (1990), pp.44–45: ahaM brahmasvarUpiNI. mattaH prakRtipuruSatmakaM jagat. zUnyaM cAzUnyaM ca. ahamAnandAnAnandau. ahaM vijJanAvijJAne. ahaM brahmAbrahmaNI veditavye. ahaM paJcabhUtAnyapaJcabhUtAni. ahamakhilaM jagat. vedo’hamavedo’ham. vidyAhamavidyAham. ajAhamanajAham, adhazcordhvaM ca tiryakcAham).
- 21.
durgAsaptazatI verse 1. 56: tvayaitaddhAryate vizvaM tvayaitatsRjyate jagat, tvayaitatpAlyate devi tvamatsyante ca sarvadA. Verse 1.57: visRSTau sRSTirUpA tvaM sthitirUpA ca pAlane, tathA saMhRtirUpAnte jagato’sya jaganmaye. Verse 1.58: mahAvidyA mahAmAyA mahAmedhA mahAsmRtiH, mahAmohA ca bhavatI mahAdevI mahAsurI. Verse 1.59: prakRtistvaM ca sarvasya guNatryavibhAvinI, kAlratrirmahArAtrirmoharAtrizca dAruNA. Verse 1.60: tvaM zRstvamIzvarI tvaM hRstvaM buddhirbodhalakSaNA, lajjA puSTistathA tuSTistvaM zAntiH kSAntireva ca.
- 22.
durgAsaptazatI verse 4.4: yA zrIH svayaM sukRtinAM bhavaneSvalakSmIH pApAtmanAM kRtadhiyAM hRdayeSu buddhiH, zraddhA satAM kulajanaprabhavasya lajjA tAM tvAM natAH sma paripAlaya devi vizvam. We bow to the Goddess, and pray to her to take care of the universe. She is wealth personified for those whose actions are noble. She brings poverty to the sinners. She gives wisdom to those who perform proper actions. She bestows reverence upon those who are pure. She resides in noble people as lajjA.
- 23.
This nomological network is supported in a verse from the nitizlokAH: vidyA dadAti vinayaM vinayAdyAti pAtratAm, pAtratvAddhanApnoti dhanAt dharamaM tataH sukham—knowledge or wisdom gives humbleness, humbleness gives receptiveness, receptiveness gives wealth, wealth is used to perform duty, and performance of duty leads to happiness. Since knowledge or wisdom gives one lajjA, the template that guides one to perform appropriate actions and not do inappropriate activities, lajjA is similar to vinaya or humbleness. Both vinaya and lajjA are tender virtues. When one acquires wealth, lajjA guides the person to use it toward lokasaGgraha or good of the public at large, and that is consistent with following one’s dharma or duty. Therefore, lajjA appears in this happiness model twice, first explicitly as vinaya or humbleness after one acquires knowledge, and later implicitly when one acquires wealth, to guide one to perform dharma according to the zAstras. Without lajjA, one would not use knowledge and wealth appropriately, and, therefore, not be on the path to happiness. The network of virtues in the prayer (zrIH, alakSmi, buddhi zraddhA, and lajjA) and this verse from the nitizlokAH (vidyA, vinaya, pAtratA, dhana, dharma, and sukha) have a remarkable overlap. It should also be noted that lajjA is the mother of vinaya, who is the son of dharma and lajjA. lajjA follows dharma, as a wife is said to be sahacArinI, or one who always travels together. So, wherever we find dharma, we will find lajjA. vinaya is gentle like his mother lajjA, hence the overlap between the two models is natural.
- 24.
durgAsaptazatI verse 5.16: yA devI sarva bhUteSy lajjA rupeNa samsthitA, namastasyai namastasyai namastasyai namo namaH. devI who is present as lajjA in all beings, we bow to her, we bow to her, we bow to her.
- 25.
The only negative attribute used in these prayers is bhrAnti or illusion. medhas RSi explains that only by praying to devI can we get out of the negative mindset that she alone provides. It was also noted above that devI is beyond duality, and so she is both positive and negative qualities. As noted above in footnote 21, devI is said to be beyond duality, and so the negative construct is used to remind us of that aspect of devI.
- 26.
rati the wife of kAmadeva, the God of love in Hinduism, symbolizes beauty, grace, fertility, and other feminine qualities. rati is comparable to Venus, the Roman Goddess whose functions include sexual love and desire, except that rati works in partnership with her husband, and not alone.
- 27.
sAhih al-bukhari is the hadith compiled by imAm muhammad al-bukhari (870 CE). It is considered an authentic collection of reports of the sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. It contains about 7500 hadiths in 97 books. Many of the hadiths are repeated across the collection. The translation provided by Dr. M. Muhsin Khan is used in this section. It is available online at: http://sunnah.com/bukhari.
- 28.
When the Messenger of allAh saw a man performing ghusl (or bath) in an open place, so he ascended the Minbar and praised and glorified allAh, then he said: “allAh, the Mighty and Sublime, is al-haleem or forbearing, al-hayyee or modest and al-sitteer or concealing, and He loves modesty and concealment. When any one of you performs ghusl, let him conceal himself.” [sunAn an-nasa'i 406].
- 29.
The Prophet said, “allAh will cover up on the Day of Resurrection the defects (faults) of the one who covers up the faults of the others in this world”. [Book 1, hadith 240]. The Prophet said, “He who removes from a believer one of his difficulties of this world, allAh will remove one of his troubles on the Day of Resurrection; and he who finds relief for a hard-pressed person, allAh will make things easy for him on the Day of Resurrection; he who covers up (the faults and sins) of others, allAh will cover up (his faults and sins) in this world and in the hereafter. allAh supports His slave as long as the slave is supportive of his brother; and he who treads the path in search of knowledge, allAh makes that path easy, leading to jannah for him; the people who assemble in one of the houses of allAh, reciting the Book of allAh, learning it and teaching, there descends upon them the tranquillity, and mercy covers them, the angels flock around them, and allAh mentions them in the presence of those near Him; and he who lags behind in doing good deeds, his noble lineage will not make him go ahead.” [Book 1, hadith 245].
- 30.
“Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: and allAh is well acquainted with all that they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty…….” (qur’an nUr, 30–31).
- 31.
‘abdullah bin mas’Ud narrated that the Messenger of allAh (s.a.w) said: “Have haya’ for allAh as is His due.” We said: “O Prophet of allAh! We have hayA, and all praise is due to allAh.” He said: “Not that, but having the hayA for allAh which He is due is to protect the head and what it contains and to protect the insides and what it includes, and to remember death and the trial, and whoever intends the Hereafter, he leaves the adornments of the world. So whoever does that, then he has indeed fulfilled hayA, meaning the hayA which allAh is due.” [Vol. 4, Book 11, hadith 2458].
- 32.
The Prophet said: “Faith has seventy odd branches and modesty (al-hayA) is a branch of faith.” [sunan an-nasa’i 5004, 5006] The Prophet passed by a man who was admonishing his brother regarding hayA and was saying, “You are very shy, and I am afraid that might harm you.” On that, allAh’s Messenger said, “Leave him, for hayA is (a part) of Faith.” [sahih al-bukhari 6118].
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank AcArya Satya Chaitanya, Professors Jai B. P. Sinha, Anand Paranjpe, Arindam Chakrabarty, Shamsul Khan, Dr. Mrigaya Sinha, Dr. Vijayan P Munusamy, Dr. Om P Sharma, Anand C. Narayanan, and Eric Rhodes, for their insightful comments that helped improve the paper. An earlier draft of the paper was presented at the International Congress of International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Nagoya, Japan, July 31–August 3, 2016.
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Bhawuk, D.P.S. (2017). lajjA in Indian Psychology: Spiritual, Social, and Literary Perspectives. In: Vanderheiden, E., Mayer, CH. (eds) The Value of Shame. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53100-7_5
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